Depression Among Pregnant and Breastfeeding Persons Participating in Two Randomized Trials of the Dapivirine Vaginal Ring and Oral Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.

Depression is associated with lower adherence to oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV, but data are not currently available on how depression may affect use of other HIV prevention methods including the dapivirine vaginal ring (DVR). We conducted a mixed methods study using data from the Microbicide Trials Network (MTN) 042/DELIVER (n = 558) and MTN-043/B-PROTECTED (n = 197) studies to describe the prevalence of depressive symptoms and explore how depressive symptoms may have influenced attitudes about use of the monthly DVR and once-daily oral PrEP tablet among pregnant and breastfeeding persons, respectively, in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. Eleven participants had high Edinburgh Postnatal Depression scores ≥ 10 in MTN-042/DELIVER (2%) and four participants (2%) in MTN-043/B-PROTECTED. In interviews with 9 participants who had high scores (6 DVR, 3 oral PrEP), those with depressive symptoms described overlapping stressors which were magnified by job loss and economic instability during the COVID-19 pandemic, and by experiences of pregnancy/postpartum. These participants experienced a lack of support from partners or family members, and conflict with partners related to trust, and infidelity. While we did not find evidence of a change in product adherence, there was a strong sense of commitment and motivation to use the study products for protection from HIV for participants themselves and their baby. Although lack of social support is usually an obstacle to adherence, in this study, the participants' lives and relationships seemed to have reinforced the need for HIV prevention and motivated women to protect themselves and their babies from HIV.

Acceptability of the dapivirine vaginal ring for HIV-1 prevention among women reporting engagement in transactional sex.

We assessed if acceptability of the dapivirine vaginal ring for HIV prevention differed among the subgroup of women who reported engaging in transactional sex prior to enrollment in MTN-020/ASPIRE (phase III trial in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, 2012-2015; n = 2629). Transactional sex was defined as receipt of money, goods, gifts, drugs, or shelter in exchange for sex in the past year. Dimensions of acceptability included: ease of use and physical sensation in situ, impacts on sex, partner's opinion, and likelihood of future use. We used Poisson regression models with robust standard errors to compare risk of acceptability challenges by baseline history of transactional sex. At product discontinuation, women exchanging sex found the ring comfortable (90%), easy to insert (92%) and nearly all (96%) were likely to use the ring in the future. Women who had exchanged sex were more likely to report feeling the ring during sex (ARR 1.43, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.89; p = 0.01) and slightly more likely to mind wearing the ring during menses (ARR 1.22, 95% CI: 1.01, 1,46; p = 0.04) and during sex (ARR 1.22, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.45; p = 0.03). Messaging and counseling should include enhanced support for use during sex and menses to support optimal use.

Acceptability and Use of the Dapivirine Vaginal Ring and Daily Oral Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) During Breastfeeding in South Africa, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Uganda.

This study examines qualitative acceptability of the dapivirine vaginal ring (DVR) and oral daily pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among breastfeeding persons participating in Microbicide Trials Network 043/B-PROTECTED, a phase 3B safety and drug detectability study of DVR and oral PrEP in breastfeeding. A subsample of 52 participants were purposively sampled to participate in an in-depth interview (IDI). Breastfeeding participants found both study products to be acceptable, and easy to use. A common motivation for product use was to protect the baby from HIV, although participants' understanding of how the study drug would work to protect their babies was often unclear. While most participants did not report experiencing side effects, fears about side effects were common as both initial worries about how the study products would affect their health and the health of their baby, and increased anxiety that health issues experienced by them, or their baby were from the products.

Sexual Attitudes, Beliefs, Practices, and HIV Risk During Pregnancy and Post-delivery: A Qualitative Study in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.

Women who acquire HIV during the pregnancy and breastfeeding periods have a higher risk of transmitting the virus to their child than women who become infected with HIV before pregnancy. We explore the context of sexual beliefs and practices that may shape both HIV risk and willingness to use HIV prevention products during pregnancy and postpartum in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Twenty-three single sex focus group discussions and 36 in-depth interviews took place between May and November 2018 with recently pregnant or breastfeeding women, men, mothers and mothers-in-law of pregnant or breastfeeding women, and key informants. Participants across study groups and sites (N = 232) reported various perceived benefits and harms of sex during pregnancy and postpartum. Participants discussed reasons why men might seek sex outside of the relationship. There is a critical need for alternative prevention options to protect pregnant and breastfeeding women from HIV.

The Influence of Perceived Dapivirine Vaginal Ring Effectiveness on Social Disclosure and Ring Adherence.

We analyzed data from 1428 users of the dapivirine vaginal ring, who participated in the MTN-020/ASPIRE phase III trial and subsequent open-label extension MTN-025/HOPE trial, to examine relationships between perceived ring protection, social disclosures, and self-reported ring adherence. In HOPE, 77% perceived the ring to be highly effective, and this view was associated with speaking: (a) to a greater number of people about the study, (b) with other participants, (c) to more people who were in favor of the ring, and (d) to more people whose opinions were valued. Reported adherence was not directly associated with perceived protection but was associated with disclosing to someone who was in favor of the ring. These findings suggest the importance of women's internalized ideas about the protective benefits of the DVR in sharing information about the ring and the importance of social support on adherence.

Acceptability of the Dapivirine Vaginal Ring for HIV-1 Prevention and Association with Adherence in a Phase III Trial.

We evaluated the acceptability of the 25 mg dapivirine vaginal ring (DVR) as an HIV prevention intervention and its influence on DVR adherence in the MTN-020/ASPIRE phase III trial. Acceptability measures were captured using ACASI at month 3 and end of product use (median 24 months, IQR 15-30). Monthly returned rings were classified as nonadherent if dapivirine release rate was ≤ 0.9 mg/month. Associations between acceptability measures and nonadherence were estimated using Poisson regression models with robust standard errors. At month 3 (N = 2334), 88% reported DVR was comfortable, 80% were unaware of it during daily activities, and 74% never felt it during sex. At exit, 66% were 'very likely' to use DVR in the future. Acceptability was found to differ significantly by country across several measures including wearing the ring during sex, during menses, partner acceptability, impact on sexual pleasure and willingness to use the ring in the future. Risk of nonadherence at month 12 was elevated if DVR was felt during sex at month 3 (aRR 1.67, 95% CI 1.26, 2.23). Risk of nonadherence in the last year of study participation was elevated if, at exit, participants minded wearing during sex (aRR 2.08, 95% CI 1.52, 2.85), during menses (aRR 1.57, 95% CI 1.06, 2.32), reported a problematic change to the vaginal environment (aRR 1.57, 95% CI 1.12, 2.21), and were not "very likely" to use DVR in the future (aRR 1.31, 95% CI 1.02, 1.68). DVR acceptability was overall high yet varied by country. Addressing perceived ring interference with sex, menses, or problematic changes to the vaginal environment in future interventions could help improve adherence, as could embracing sex-positive messaging related to ring use and increased pleasure.Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01617096.

After their wives have delivered, a lot of men like going out: Perceptions of HIV transmission risk and support for HIV prevention methods during breastfeeding in sub-Saharan Africa.

Female-initiated HIV prevention methods, such as oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and the vaginal ring, may be important risk reduction strategies for breastfeeding women. Given their novelty, information about the sociocultural context and how it influences perceptions of and support for their use during breastfeeding is lacking. To address this gap, we conducted 23 focus group discussions separately with pregnant and breastfeeding women, male partners and grandmothers (N = 196) and 36 in-depth interviews with key informants in Malawi, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe. We analysed the data using a framework analysis method. Overall, breastfeeding was the norm, and participants described the transference of health (e.g., nutrition) and disease (e.g., HIV) to children through breast milk. Participants considered the early breastfeeding period as one of high HIV transmission risk for women. They explained that male partners tend to seek outside sexual partners during this period because women need time to recover from delivery, women focus their attention on the child, and some men are disgusted by breast milk. Participants highlighted concerns about the drugs in oral PrEP transferring to the child through breast milk, but fewer worried about the effects of the vaginal ring because the drug is localized. Women, grandmothers and key informants were supportive of women using these HIV prevention methods during breastfeeding, while male partners had mixed opinions. These findings can be used to tailor messages for promoting the use of PrEP or the vaginal ring during breastfeeding in sub-Saharan Africa.

Intimate partner violence and excess fertility among women of reproductive age in Malawi.

PURPOSE: Gender inequity and adverse health outcomes continue to be of concern among women in sub-Saharan Africa. We determined prevalence of intimate partner violence and excess fertility (having more children than desired) in reproductive age women in Malawi. We also explored factors associated with these outcomes and with spousal fertility intentions. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, a total of 360 women and 410 men were recruited using multi-stage sampling from communities in a peri-urban setting in Blantyre District, Southern Malawi in 2021. Women and men were separately interviewed by trained study workers using a structured questionnaire. In addition to descriptive analyses, we used univariate and multivariate logistic regression models to assess associations of risk factors with the outcomes of intimate partner violence and excess fertility. RESULTS: Among women, lifetime prevalence of intimate partner violence was 23.1%, and excess fertility was experienced by 25.6%. Intimate partner violence was associated with male partners alcohol consumption (adjusted odds ratio 2.13; P = 0.019). Women were more likely to report excess fertility if they were older (adjusted odds ratio 2.0, P<0.001, for a 5-year increase). Alcohol consumption by the male partner (adjusted odds ratio 2.14; P = 0.025) and women being able to refuse sex with their male partner (adjusted odds ratio 0.50; P = 0.036) were associated with discordant fertility preferences. CONCLUSIONS: Intimate partner violence, excess fertility, and social and health inequities continue to be prevalent in Malawi. These data suggest the underlying proximal and distal factors associated with these adverse outcomes such as alcohol consumption may be addressed through education, couple interactive communication, and community dialogue. To ensure sustainability and effectiveness, strong leadership involvement, both governmental and non-governmental, is needed.

Safety of a killed oral cholera vaccine (Shanchol) in pregnant women in Malawi: an observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy increases the risk of harmful effects from cholera for both mothers and their fetuses. A killed oral cholera vaccine, Shanchol (Shantha Biotechnics, Hydrabad, India), can protect against the disease for up to 5 years. However, cholera vaccination campaigns have often excluded pregnant women because of insufficient safety data for use during pregnancy. We did an observational cohort study to assess the safety of Shanchol during pregnancy. METHODS: This observational cohort study was done in two adjacent districts (Nsanje and Chikwawa) in Malawi. Individuals older than 1 year in Nsanje were offered oral cholera vaccine during a mass vaccination campaign between March 30 and April 30, 2015, but no vaccines were administered in Chikwawa. We enrolled women who were exposed to oral cholera vaccine during pregnancy in Nsanje district, and women who were pregnant in Chikwawa district (and thus not exposed to oral cholera vaccine) during the same period. The primary endpoint of our analysis was pregnancy loss (spontaneous miscarriage or stillbirth), and the secondary endpoints were neonatal deaths and malformations. We evaluated these endpoints using log-binomial regression, adjusting for the imbalanced baseline characteristics between the groups. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02499172. FINDINGS: We recruited 900 women exposed to oral cholera vaccine and 899 women not exposed to the vaccine between June 16 and Oct 10, 2015, and analysed 835 in each group. 361 women exposed to the vaccine and 327 not exposed to the vaccine were recruited after their pregnancies had ended. The incidence of pregnancy loss was 27·54 (95% CI 18·41-41·23) per 1000 pregnancies among those exposed to the vaccine and 21·56 (13·65-34·04) per 1000 among those not exposed. The adjusted relative risk for pregnancy loss among those exposed to oral cholera vaccine was 1·24 (95% CI 0·64-2·43; p=0·52) compared with those not exposed to the vaccine. The neonatal mortality rate was 11·78 (95% CI 5·92-23·46) per 1000 livebirths for infants whose mothers were exposed to oral cholera vaccine versus 8·91 (4·02-19·77) per 1000 livebirths for infants whose mothers were not exposed to the vaccine (crude relative risk 1·32, 95% CI 0·46-3·84; p=0·60). Only three newborn babies had malformations, two in the vaccine exposure group and one in the no-exposure group, yielding a relative risk of 2·00 (95% CI 0·18-22·04; p=0·57), although this estimate is unreliable because of the small number of outcomes. INTERPRETATION: Our study provides evidence that fetal exposure to oral cholera vaccine confers no significantly increased risk of pregnancy loss, neonatal mortality, or malformation. These data, along with findings from two retrospective studies, support use of oral cholera vaccine in pregnant women in cholera-affected regions. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.