Real time measurement of PEG shedding from lipid nanoparticles in serum via NMR spectroscopy.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a novel therapeutic modality that benefits from nanoparticle mediated delivery. The most clinically advanced siRNA-containing nanoparticles are polymer-coated supramolecular assemblies of siRNA and lipids (lipid nanoparticles or LNPs), which protect the siRNA from nucleases, modulate pharmacokinetics of the siRNA, and enable selective delivery of siRNA to target cells. Understanding the mechanisms of assembly and delivery of such systems is complicated by the complexity of the dynamic supramolecular assembly as well as by its subsequent interactions with the biological milieu. We have developed an ex vivo method that provides insight into how LNPs behave when contacted with biological fluids. Pulsed gradient spin echo (PGSE) NMR was used to directly measure the kinetics of poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG) shedding from siRNA encapsulated LNPs in rat serum. The method represents a molecularly specific, real-time, quantitative, and label-free way to monitor the behavior of a nanoparticle surface coating. We believe that this method has broad implications in gaining mechanistic insights into how nanoparticle-based drug delivery vehicles behave in biofluids and is versatile enough to be applied to a diversity of systems.

Fully acid-degradable biocompatible polyacetal microparticles for drug delivery.

A library of polyurethanes and polyureas with different hydrophobicities containing the same acid-degradable dimethyl ketal moiety embedded in the polymer main chain have been prepared. All polymers were synthesized using an AA-BB type step-growth polymerization by reaction of bis(p-nitrophenyl carbamate/carbonate) or diisocyanate monomers with an acid-degradable, ketal-containing diamine. These polymers were designed to hydrolyze at different rates in mildly acidic conditions as a function of their hydrophobicity to afford small molecules only with no polymeric byproduct. The library of polymers was screened for the formation of microparticles using a double emulsion technique. The microparticles that were obtained degraded significantly faster at acidic pH (5.0) than at physiological pH (7.4) with degradation kinetics related to the hydrophobicity of the starting polymer. In vitro studies demonstrated the ability of the FITC-BSA loaded microparticles to be phagocytosed by macrophages resulting in a 10-fold increase in the protein uptake compared to a free protein control; in addition, the microparticles were found to be nontoxic at the concentrations tested of up to 1 mg/mL. The ease of preparation of the polymers coupled with the ability to tune their hydrophobicity and the high acid sensitivity of the microparticles identify this new class of materials as promising candidates for the delivery of bioactive materials.

Control of phosphorothioate stereochemistry substantially increases the efficacy of antisense oligonucleotides.

Whereas stereochemical purity in drugs has become the standard for small molecules, stereoisomeric mixtures containing as many as a half million components persist in antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapeutics because it has been feasible neither to separate the individual stereoisomers, nor to synthesize stereochemically pure ASOs. Here we report the development of a scalable synthetic process that yields therapeutic ASOs having high stereochemical and chemical purity. Using this method, we synthesized rationally designed stereopure components of mipomersen, a drug comprising 524,288 stereoisomers. We demonstrate that phosphorothioate (PS) stereochemistry substantially affects the pharmacologic properties of ASOs. We report that Sp-configured PS linkages are stabilized relative to Rp, providing stereochemical protection from pharmacologic inactivation of the drug. Further, we elucidated a triplet stereochemical code in the stereopure ASOs, 3'-SpSpRp, that promotes target RNA cleavage by RNase H1 in vitro and provides a more durable response in mice than stereorandom ASOs.

Enhanced antigen presentation and immunostimulation of dendritic cells using acid-degradable cationic nanoparticles.

Acid-degradable cationic nanoparticles encapsulating a model antigen (i.e., ovalbumin) were prepared by inverse microemulsion polymerization with acid-cleavable acetal cross-linkers. Incubation of these degradable nanoparticles with dendritic cells derived from bone marrow (BMDCs) resulted in the enhanced presentation of ovalbumin-derived peptides, as quantified by B3Z cells, a CD8+ T cell hybridoma. The cationic nature of the particles contributed to the increased surface endocytosis (or phagocytosis) observed with BMDCs, which is the first barrier to overcome for successful antigen delivery. The acid sensitivity of the particles served to direct more ovalbumin antigens to be processed into the appropriately trimmed peptide fragments and presented via the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway following hydrolysis within the acidic lysosomes. It was also shown that adjuvant molecules such as unmethylated CpG oligonucleotides (CpG ODN) and anti-interleukin-10 oligonucleotides (AS10 ODN) could be co-delivered with the protein antigen for maximized cellular immune response.

Coassembled cytotoxic and pegylated peptide amphiphiles form filamentous nanostructures with potent antitumor activity in models of breast cancer.

Self-assembled peptide amphiphiles (PAs) consisting of hydrophobic, hydvrogen-bonding, and charged hydrophilic domains form cylindrical nanofibers in physiological conditions and allow for the presentation of a high density of bioactive epitopes on the nanofiber surface. We report here on the use of PAs to form multifunctional nanostructures with tumoricidal activity. The combination of a cationic, membrane-lytic PA coassembled with a serum-protective, pegylated PA was shown to self-assemble into nanofibers. Addition of the pegylated PA to the nanostructure substantially limited degradation of the cytolytic PA by the protease trypsin, with an 8-fold increase in the amount of intact PA observed after digestion. At the same time, addition of up to 50% pegylated PA to the nanofibers did not decrease the in vitro cytotoxicity of the cytolytic PA. Using a fluorescent tag covalently attached to PA nanofibers we were able to track the biodistribution in plasma and tissues of tumor-bearing mice over time after intraperitoneal administration of the nanoscale filaments. Using an orthotopic mouse xenograft model of breast cancer, systemic administration of the cytotoxic pegylated nanostructures significantly reduced tumor cell proliferation and overall tumor growth, demonstrating the potential of multifunctional PA nanostructures as versatile cancer therapeutics.

Antitumor activity of peptide amphiphile nanofiber-encapsulated camptothecin.

Self-assembling peptide amphiphile (PA) nanofibers were used to encapsulate camptothecin (CPT), a naturally occurring hydrophobic chemotherapy agent, using a solvent evaporation technique. Encapsulation by PA nanofibers was found to improve the aqueous solubility of the CPT molecule by more than 50-fold. PAs self-assembled into nanofibers in the presence of CPT as demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy. Small-angle X-ray scattering results suggest a slight increase in diameter of the nanofiber to accommodate the hydrophobic cargo. In vitro studies using human breast cancer cells show an enhancement in antitumor activity of the CPT when encapsulated by the PA nanofibers. In addition, using a mouse orthotopic model of human breast cancer, treatment with PA nanofiber-encapsulated CPT inhibited tumor growth. These results highlight the potential of this model PA system to be adapted for delivery of hydrophobic therapies to treat a variety of diseases including cancer.

Induction of cancer cell death by self-assembling nanostructures incorporating a cytotoxic peptide.

Nanotechnology offers novel delivery vehicles for cancer therapeutics. Potential advantages of nanoscale platforms include improved pharmacokinetics, encapsulation of cytotoxic agents, enhanced accumulation of therapeutics in the tumor microenvironment, and improved therapeutic structures and bioactivity. Here, we report the design of a novel amphiphilic molecule that self-assembles into nanostructures for intracellular delivery of cytotoxic peptides. Specifically, a cationic alpha-helical (KLAKLAK)(2) peptide that is known to induce cancer cell death by membrane disruption was integrated into a peptide amphiphile (PA) that self-assembles into bioactive, cylindrical nanofibers. PAs are composed of a hydrophobic alkyl tail, a beta-sheet forming peptide, and a bioactive peptide that is displayed on the surface of the nanofiber after self-assembly. PA nanostructures that included (KLAKLAK)(2) were readily internalized by breast cancer cells, in contrast to the (KLAKLAK)(2) peptide that on its own was not cell permeable. (KLAKLAK)(2) nanostructures, but not the peptides alone, also induced breast cancer cell death by caspase-independent and Bax/Bak-independent mechanisms associated with membrane disruption. Significantly, (KLAKLAK)(2) nanostructures induced cell death more robustly in transformed breast epithelial cells than in untransformed cells, suggesting a degree of tumor selectivity. Our results provide proof-of-principle that self-assembling PAs can be rationally designed to generate nanostructures that can efficiently deliver cytotoxic peptides to cancer cells.

Incorporation of CpG oligonucleotide ligand into protein-loaded particle vaccines promotes antigen-specific CD8 T-cell immunity.

The development of multicomponent biotherapeutic carriers is an important challenge in the field of drug delivery, particularly in the area of protein-based vaccines. While the delivery of protein antigens to antigen presenting cells (APCs) is crucial for this type of vaccination, the incorporation of additional adjuvants may be just as important in order to generate more potent immune responses. This article presents the synthesis and biological evaluation of carrier particles that both deliver a protein payload to APCs and display receptor ligands for the enhancement of APC immunostimulation. Particles displaying CpG oligonucleotide ligands for Toll-like receptor 9 were synthesized. The addition of CpG DNA to the particles led to a 45-fold increase in the secretion of interleukin-12, a cytokine that aids in T-cell activation, and a significant increase in the expression of costimulatory molecules by APCs. Moreover, vaccination with particles containing both ovalbumin (OVA) and CpG DNA induced a superior OVA-specific CD8 T-cell response in vivo, as measured by increased OVA-specific CD8 T-cell proliferation, secretion of the proinflammatory cytokine IFN-gamma, and the induction of OVA-specific cytotoxicity.

Directed antigen presentation using polymeric microparticulate carriers degradable at lysosomal pH for controlled immune responses.

The types of the immune responses generated against an antigen are determined by the intracellular fate of the antigen. Endogenous antigens are processed in the cytoplasm and initiate cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. In contrast, exogenous antigens are degraded in the lysosome (or phagolysosome) of antigen presenting cells (APCs), and induce antibody-mediated immune responses and assist CTL activation. Therefore, maximizing a desired response by controlling delivery pathways is indispensable in vaccine development and immunotherapy. New cleavable microparticles have been prepared for use as protein-based vaccine carriers by polymerizing water soluble monomers including a newly developed aliphatic monomer with a pendant primary amine group and a cleavable acetal linkage with a wholly aliphatic cleavable acetal cross-linker. Incorporation of the cleavable amine monomer in the polymerization mixture increased the encapsulation efficiency of a model antigen, ovalbumin. Ex vivo assays showed that the composition of the particles greatly affected the magnitude and the pathway of antigen presentations, which determine the type of immune responses. The degradable particles synthesized with the new cross-linker enhanced MHC I antigen presentation 2-3-fold over nondegradable particles. It was also found that, by adding 10% cationic cleavable monomers to the microparticles, MHC I restricted antigen presentation was enhanced ca. 75 times over that achieved with nondegradable particles. The microparticles introduced in this study can be further used for targeting and gene delivery due to functionalizable and cleavable cationic monomers in addition to degradability.

Acid-degradable particles for protein-based vaccines: enhanced survival rate for tumor-challenged mice using ovalbumin model.

Acid-degradable protein-loaded polymer particles show promise for antigen-based vaccines due to their ability to activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in vitro. Protein loadings and cytotoxic T lymphocyte activation efficiencies have now been enhanced through novel delivery vehicle designs. In particular, the use of a more hydrophilic acid-degradable cross-linker leads to increased water dispersibility and increased protein loading efficiency for the particles. A 2.5-fold increase in protein encapsulation allows the delivery of more protein antigen to antigen presenting cells (APCs) leading to a 20-fold rise in antigen presentation levels. The mechanism by which APCs internalize these particles was explored using the phagocytosis inhibitor, cytochalasin B. In addition, preliminary in vivo experiments were conducted to investigate the ability of the protein-loaded particles to provide immunity against tumors in mice, and an enhanced survival rate over the use of protein alone was observed, indicating that this vaccine delivery strategy has great practical potential.