ABSTRACT
Somatic cells can be reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) by using the pluripotency factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc (together referred to as OSKM). iPSC reprogramming erases somatic epigenetic signaturesas typified by DNA methylation or histone modification at silent pluripotency lociand establishes alternative epigenetic marks of embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Here we describe an early and essential stage of somatic cell reprogramming, preceding the induction of transcription at endogenous pluripotency loci such as Nanog and Esrrb. By day 4 after transduction with OSKM, two epigenetic modification factors necessary for iPSC generation, namely poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (Parp1) and ten-eleven translocation-2 (Tet2), are recruited to the Nanog and Esrrb loci. These epigenetic modification factors seem to have complementary roles in the establishment of early epigenetic marks during somatic cell reprogramming: Parp1 functions in the regulation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) modification, whereas Tet2 is essential for the early generation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) by the oxidation of 5mC (refs 3,4). Although 5hmC has been proposed to serve primarily as an intermediate in 5mC demethylation to cytosine in certain contexts, our data, and also studies of Tet2-mutant human tumour cells, argue in favour of a role for 5hmC as an epigenetic mark distinct from 5mC. Consistent with this, Parp1 and Tet2 are each needed for the early establishment of histone modifications that typify an activated chromatin state at pluripotency loci, whereas Parp1 induction further promotes accessibility to the Oct4 reprogramming factor. These findings suggest that Parp1 and Tet2 contribute to an epigenetic program that directs subsequent transcriptional induction at pluripotency loci during somatic cell reprogramming.
Subject(s)
Cellular Reprogramming , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Epigenesis, Genetic , Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells/cytology , Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells/metabolism , Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases/metabolism , Proto-Oncogene Proteins/metabolism , Animals , Chromatin/genetics , Chromatin/metabolism , DNA Methylation , Dioxygenases , Exons/genetics , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Homeodomain Proteins/genetics , Homeodomain Proteins/metabolism , Humans , Introns/genetics , Kruppel-Like Factor 4 , Mice , Nanog Homeobox Protein , Poly (ADP-Ribose) Polymerase-1 , Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases/genetics , Receptors, Estrogen/genetics , Receptors, Estrogen/metabolismABSTRACT
Transcriptional activation of the nuclear receptor RAR by retinoic acid (RA) often leads to inhibition of cell growth. However, in some tissues, RA promotes cell survival and hyperplasia, activities that are unlikely to be mediated by RAR. Here, we show that, in addition to functioning through RAR, RA activates the "orphan" nuclear receptor PPARbeta/delta, which, in turn, induces the expression of prosurvival genes. Partitioning of RA between the two receptors is regulated by the intracellular lipid binding proteins CRABP-II and FABP5. These proteins specifically deliver RA from the cytosol to nuclear RAR and PPARbeta/delta, respectively, thereby selectively enhancing the transcriptional activity of their cognate receptors. Consequently, RA functions through RAR and is a proapoptotic agent in cells with high CRABP-II/FABP5 ratio, but it signals through PPARbeta/delta and promotes survival in cells that highly express FABP5. Opposing effects of RA on cell growth thus emanate from alternate activation of two different nuclear receptors.