Unbiased expression mapping identifies a link between the complement and cholinergic systems in the rat central nervous system.

The complement system is activated in a wide spectrum of CNS diseases and is suggested to play a role in degenerative phenomena such as elimination of synaptic terminals. Still, little is known of mechanisms regulating complement activation in the CNS. Loss of synaptic terminals in the spinal cord after an experimental nerve injury is increased in the inbred DA strain compared with the PVG strain and is associated with expression of the upstream complement components C1q and C3, in the absence of membrane attack complex activation and neutrophil infiltration. To further dissect pathways regulating complement expression, we performed genome-wide expression profiling and linkage analysis in a large F2(DA × PVG) intercross, which identified quantitative trait loci regulating expression of C1qa, C1qb, C3, and C9. Unlike C1qa, C1qb, and C9, which all displayed distinct coregulation with different cis-regulated C-type lectins, C3 was regulated in a coexpression network immediately downstream of butyrylcholinesterase. Butyrylcholinesterase hydrolyses acetylcholine, which exerts immunoregulatory effects partly through TNF-α pathways. Accordingly, increased C3, but not C1q, expression was demonstrated in rat and mouse glia following TNF-α stimulation, which was abrogated in a dose-dependent manner by acetylcholine. These findings demonstrate new pathways regulating CNS complement expression using unbiased mapping in an experimental in vivo system. A direct link between cholinergic activity and complement activation is supported by in vitro experiments. The identification of distinct pathways subjected to regulation by naturally occurring genetic variability is of relevance for the understanding of disease mechanisms in neurologic conditions characterized by neuronal injury and complement activation.

Changes in CSF cholinergic biomarkers in response to cell therapy with NGF in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: The extensive loss of central cholinergic functions in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain is linked to impaired nerve growth factor (NGF) signaling. The cardinal cholinergic biomarker is the acetylcholine synthesizing enzyme, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), which has recently been found in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The purpose of this study was to see if EC-NGF therapy will alter CSF levels of cholinergic biomarkers, ChAT, and acetylcholinesterase. METHOD: Encapsulated cell implants releasing NGF (EC-NGF) were surgically implanted bilaterally in the basal forebrain of six AD patients for 12 months and cholinergic markers in CSF were analyzed. RESULTS: Activities of both enzymes were altered after 12 months. In particular, the activity of soluble ChAT showed high correlation with cognition, CSF tau and amyloid-ß, in vivo cerebral glucose utilization and nicotinic binding sites, and morphometric and volumetric magnetic resonance imaging measures. DISCUSSION: A clear pattern of association is demonstrated showing a proof-of-principle effect on CSF cholinergic markers, suggestive of a beneficial EC-NGF implant therapy.

Fibrillar ß-amyloid 1-42 alters cytokine secretion, cholinergic signalling and neuronal differentiation.

Adult neurogenesis is impaired by inflammatory processes, which are linked to altered cholinergic signalling and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we investigated how amyloid beta (Aß)-evoked inflammatory responses affect the generation of new neurons from human embryonic stem (hES) cells and the role of cholinergic signalling in regulating this process. The hES were cultured as neurospheres and exposed to fibrillar and oligomeric Aß(1-42) (Aßf, AßO) or to conditioned medium from human primary microglia activated with either Aß(1-42) or lipopolysaccharide. The neurospheres were differentiated for 29 days in vitro and the resulting neuronal or glial phenotypes were thereafter assessed. Secretion of cytokines and the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) involved in cholinergic signalling was measured in medium throughout the differentiation. We report that differentiating neurospheres released various cytokines, and exposure to Aßf, but not AßO, increased the secretion of IL-6, IL-1ß and IL-2. Aßf also influenced the levels of AChE, BuChE and ChAT in favour of a low level of acetylcholine. These changes were linked to an altered secretion pattern of cytokines. A different pattern was observed in microglia activated by Aßf, demonstrating decreased secretion of TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-2 relative to untreated cells. Subsequent exposure of differentiating neurospheres to Aßf or to microglia-conditioned medium decreased neuronal differentiation and increased glial differentiation. We suggest that a basal physiological secretion of cytokines is involved in shaping the differentiation of neurospheres and that Aßf decreases neurogenesis by promoting a microenvironment favouring hypo-cholinergic signalling and gliogenesis.

High apolipoprotein E in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Lewy body disorders is associated with dementia.

Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele (APOE ε4) increases the apolipoprotein E (apoE) protein levels in Alzheimer's disease (AD) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Thus, we hypothesized that apoE levels were also associated with the APOE genotype, and amyloid-ß (Aß)-associated clinical, functional, and imaging parameters in patients with Lewy body-associated disorders (LBD). Indeed, similar to AD, patients with LBD displayed high CSF apoE levels (greatest in patients with dementia with LBD), and this was linked to APOE ε4. High CSF apoE protein correlated positively with CSF soluble amyloid precursor protein, total tau, and cortical and striatal Pittsburgh compound B retention; and correlated negatively with CSF Aß42, cognitive tests scores, and glucose uptake ratio in the temporal and parietal cortices. APOE ε4-triggered accumulation of apoE in CSF is related to Aß-associated clinical and functional imaging parameters in LBD. Accordingly, therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing apoE levels in the brain should be explored not only in AD but also in LBD, particularly when accompanied with dementia.

Multiplex proteomics identifies novel CSF and plasma biomarkers of early Alzheimer's disease.

To date, the development of disease-modifying therapies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has largely focused on the removal of amyloid beta Aß fragments from the CNS. Proteomic profiling of patient fluids may help identify novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers associated with AD pathology. Here, we applied the Olink™ ProSeek immunoassay to measure 270 CSF and plasma proteins across 415 Aß- negative cognitively normal individuals (Aß- CN), 142 Aß-positive CN (Aß+ CN), 50 Aß- mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients, 75 Aß+ MCI patients, and 161 Aß+ AD patients from the Swedish BioFINDER study. A validation cohort included 59 Aß- CN, 23 Aß- + CN, 44 Aß- MCI and 53 Aß+ MCI. To compare protein concentrations in patients versus controls, we applied multiple linear regressions adjusting for age, gender, medications, smoking and mean subject-level protein concentration, and corrected findings for false discovery rate (FDR, q < 0.05). We identified, and replicated, altered levels of ten CSF proteins in Aß+ individuals, including CHIT1, SMOC2, MMP-10, LDLR, CD200, EIF4EBP1, ALCAM, RGMB, tPA and STAMBP (- 0.14 < d < 1.16; q < 0.05). We also identified and replicated alterations of six plasma proteins in Aß+ individuals OSM, MMP-9, HAGH, CD200, AXIN1, and uPA (- 0.77 < d < 1.28; q < 0.05). Multiple analytes associated with cognitive performance and cortical thickness (q < 0.05). Plasma biomarkers could distinguish AD dementia (AUC = 0.94, 95% CI = 0.87-0.98) and prodromal AD (AUC = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.68-0.87) from CN. These findings reemphasize the contributions of immune markers, phospholipids, angiogenic proteins and other biomarkers downstream of, and potentially orthogonal to, Aß- and tau in AD, and identify candidate biomarkers for earlier detection of neurodegeneration.

Pharmacological Modulations of the Serotonergic System in a Cell-Model of Familial Alzheimer's Disease.

Serotonin (5-HT) plays a central role in the integrity of different brain functions. The 5-HT homeostasis is regulated by many factors, including serotonin transporter (SERT), monoamine oxidase enzyme (MAO), and several 5-HT receptors, including the 5-HT1B. There is little knowledge how the dynamics of this system is affected by the amyloid-ß (Aß) burden of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells transfected with the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene containing the Swedish mutations causing familial AD (APPswe), were used as a model to explore the effect of Aß pathology on 5-HT1B and related molecules including the receptor adaptor protein (p11), SERT and MAOA gene expression, and MAOA activity after treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) (sertraline), and a 5-HT1B receptor antagonist. Sertraline led more than 70 fold increase of 5-HT1B gene expression (p < 0.001), an increased serotonin turnover in both APPswe and control cells and reduced intracellular serotonin levels by 75% in APPswe cells but not in controls (p > 0.05). Treatment with the 5-HT1B receptor antagonist increased SERT gene-expression in control cells but not in the APPswe cells. 5-HT and 5-HT1B antagonist treatment resulted in different p11 expression patterns in APPswe cells compared to controls. Although MAOA gene expression was not changed by APPswe overexpression, adding 5-HT lead to a significant increase in MAOA gene expression in APPswe but not control cells. These findings suggest that the sensitivity of the 5-HT1B receptor and related systems is affected by APPswe overexpression, with potential relevance for pharmacologic intervention in AD. This may at least partly explain the lack of effect of SSRIs in patients with AD and depression.

Association of Butyrylcholinesterase-K Allele and Apolipoprotein E ɛ4 Allele with Cognitive Decline in Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Alzheimer's Disease.

BACKGROUND: A common polymorphism of the butyrylcholinesterase gene, the K-variant (BCHE-K) is associated with reduced butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity. Insufficient studies exist regarding the frequency and role of BCHE-K in dementias. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of BCHE-K and APOEɛ4 with diagnosis and rate of cognitive decline in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. METHODS: Genomic DNA from 368 subjects (108 AD, 174 DLB, and 86 controls) from two routine clinical cohort studies in Norway; DemVest and TrønderBrain, were genotyped for BCHE-K and APOEɛ4. The mild dementia DemVest subjects received annual Mini-Mental State Examination assessments for five years. RESULTS: BCHE-K frequency was lower in DLB (33.9% ; p <  0.01) than in control subjects (51.2%), and was numerically lower in AD as well (38.9% ; p = 0.11). More rapid cognitive decline was associated with the APOEɛ4 genotype, but not with the BCHE-K genotype. In an exploratory analysis of patients who completed all five follow-up visits, there was greater cognitive decline in BCHE-K carriers in the presence of the APOEɛ4 allele than in the absence of these polymorphisms. CONCLUSION: BCHE-K is associated with a reduced risk for AD and DLB whereas APOEɛ4 is associated with more rapid cognitive decline. The greater cognitive decline in individuals with both APOEɛ4 and BCHE-K alleles require prospective confirmation in well-controlled trials.

Complement component C3 and butyrylcholinesterase activity are associated with neurodegeneration and clinical disability in multiple sclerosis.

Dysregulation of the complement system is evident in many CNS diseases but mechanisms regulating complement activation in the CNS remain unclear. In a recent large rat genome-wide expression profiling and linkage analysis we found co-regulation of complement C3 immediately downstream of butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), an enzyme hydrolyzing acetylcholine (ACh), a classical neurotransmitter with immunoregulatory effects. We here determined levels of neurofilament-light (NFL), a marker for ongoing nerve injury, C3 and activity of the two main ACh hydrolyzing enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and BuChE, in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with MS (n = 48) and non-inflammatory controls (n = 18). C3 levels were elevated in MS patients compared to controls and correlated both to disability and NFL. C3 levels were not induced by relapses, but were increased in patients with ≥9 cerebral lesions on magnetic resonance imaging and in patients with progressive disease. BuChE activity did not differ at the group level, but was correlated to both C3 and NFL levels in individual samples. In conclusion, we show that CSF C3 correlates both to a marker for ongoing nerve injury and degree of disease disability. Moreover, our results also suggest a potential link between intrathecal cholinergic activity and complement activation. These results motivate further efforts directed at elucidating the regulation and effector functions of the complement system in MS, and its relation to cholinergic tone.

Functional variability in butyrylcholinesterase activity regulates intrathecal cytokine and astroglial biomarker profiles in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity is associated with activated astrocytes in Alzheimer's disease brain. The BuChE-K variant exhibits 30%-60% reduced acetylcholine (ACh) hydrolyzing capacity. Considering the increasing evidence of an immune-regulatory role of ACh, we investigated if genetic heterogeneity in BuChE affects cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers of inflammation and cholinoceptive glial function. Alzheimer's disease patients (n = 179) were BCHE-K-genotyped. Proteomic and enzymatic analyses were performed on CSF and/or plasma. BuChE genotype was linked with differential CSF levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein, S100B, interleukin-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. BCHE-K noncarriers displayed 100%-150% higher glial fibrillary acidic protein and 64%-110% higher S100B than BCHE-K carriers, who, in contrast, had 40%-80% higher interleukin-1ß and 21%-27% higher TNF-α compared with noncarriers. A high level of CSF BuChE enzymatic phenotype also significantly correlated with higher CSF levels of astroglial markers and several factors of the innate complement system, but lower levels of proinflammatory cytokines. These individuals also displayed beneficial paraclinical and clinical findings, such as high cerebral glucose utilization, low ß-amyloid load, and less severe progression of clinical symptoms. In vitro analysis on human astrocytes confirmed the involvement of a regulated BuChE status in the astroglial responses to TNF-α and ACh. Histochemical analysis in a rat model of nerve injury-induced neuroinflammation, showed focal assembly of astroglial cells in proximity of BuChE-immunolabeled sites. In conclusion, these results suggest that BuChE enzymatic activity plays an important role in regulating intrinsic inflammation and activity of cholinoceptive glial cells and that this might be of clinical relevance. The dissociation between astroglial markers and inflammatory cytokines indicates that a proper activation and maintenance of astroglial function is a beneficial response, rather than a disease-driving mechanism. Further studies are needed to explore the therapeutic potential of manipulating BuChE activity or astroglial functional status.

Regulated Extracellular Choline Acetyltransferase Activity- The Plausible Missing Link of the Distant Action of Acetylcholine in the Cholinergic Anti-Inflammatory Pathway.

Acetylcholine (ACh), the classical neurotransmitter, also affects a variety of nonexcitable cells, such as endothelia, microglia, astrocytes and lymphocytes in both the nervous system and secondary lymphoid organs. Most of these cells are very distant from cholinergic synapses. The action of ACh on these distant cells is unlikely to occur through diffusion, given that ACh is very short-lived in the presence of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), two extremely efficient ACh-degrading enzymes abundantly present in extracellular fluids. In this study, we show compelling evidence for presence of a high concentration and activity of the ACh-synthesizing enzyme, choline-acetyltransferase (ChAT) in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma. We show that ChAT levels are physiologically balanced to the levels of its counteracting enzymes, AChE and BuChE in the human plasma and CSF. Equilibrium analyses show that soluble ChAT maintains a steady-state ACh level in the presence of physiological levels of fully active ACh-degrading enzymes. We show that ChAT is secreted by cultured human-brain astrocytes, and that activated spleen lymphocytes release ChAT itself rather than ACh. We further report differential CSF levels of ChAT in relation to Alzheimer's disease risk genotypes, as well as in patients with multiple sclerosis, a chronic neuroinflammatory disease, compared to controls. Interestingly, soluble CSF ChAT levels show strong correlation with soluble complement factor levels, supporting a role in inflammatory regulation. This study provides a plausible explanation for the long-distance action of ACh through continuous renewal of ACh in extracellular fluids by the soluble ChAT and thereby maintenance of steady-state equilibrium between hydrolysis and synthesis of this ubiquitous cholinergic signal substance in the brain and peripheral compartments. These findings may have important implications for the role of cholinergic signaling in states of inflammation in general and in neurodegenerative disease, such as Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis in particular.