Pseudo-halide anion engineering for α-FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells.

Metal halide perovskites of the general formula ABX3-where A is a monovalent cation such as caesium, methylammonium or formamidinium; B is divalent lead, tin or germanium; and X is a halide anion-have shown great potential as light harvesters for thin-film photovoltaics1-5. Among a large number of compositions investigated, the cubic α-phase of formamidinium lead triiodide (FAPbI3) has emerged as the most promising semiconductor for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells6-9, and maximizing the performance of this material in such devices is of vital importance for the perovskite research community. Here we introduce an anion engineering concept that uses the pseudo-halide anion formate (HCOO-) to suppress anion-vacancy defects that are present at grain boundaries and at the surface of the perovskite films and to augment the crystallinity of the films. The resulting solar cell devices attain a power conversion efficiency of 25.6 per cent (certified 25.2 per cent), have long-term operational stability (450 hours) and show intense electroluminescence with external quantum efficiencies of more than 10 per cent. Our findings provide a direct route to eliminate the most abundant and deleterious lattice defects present in metal halide perovskites, providing a facile access to solution-processable films with improved optoelectronic performance.

A new G-quadruplex-specific photosensitizer inducing genome instability in cancer cells by triggering oxidative DNA damage and impeding replication fork progression.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) ideally relies on the administration, selective accumulation and photoactivation of a photosensitizer (PS) into diseased tissues. In this context, we report a new heavy-atom-free fluorescent G-quadruplex (G4) DNA-binding PS, named DBI. We reveal by fluorescence microscopy that DBI preferentially localizes in intraluminal vesicles (ILVs), precursors of exosomes, which are key components of cancer cell proliferation. Moreover, purified exosomal DNA was recognized by a G4-specific antibody, thus highlighting the presence of such G4-forming sequences in the vesicles. Despite the absence of fluorescence signal from DBI in nuclei, light-irradiated DBI-treated cells generated reactive oxygen species (ROS), triggering a 3-fold increase of nuclear G4 foci, slowing fork progression and elevated levels of both DNA base damage, 8-oxoguanine, and double-stranded DNA breaks. Consequently, DBI was found to exert significant phototoxic effects (at nanomolar scale) toward cancer cell lines and tumor organoids. Furthermore, in vivo testing reveals that photoactivation of DBI induces not only G4 formation and DNA damage but also apoptosis in zebrafish, specifically in the area where DBI had accumulated. Collectively, this approach shows significant promise for image-guided PDT.

Driving Triplet State Population in Benzothioxanthene Imide Dyes: Let's twist!

Controlling the formation of photoexcited triplet states is critical for many (photo)chemical and physical applications. Here, we demonstrate that a permanent out-of-plane distortion of the benzothioxanthene imide (BTI) dye promotes intersystem crossing by increasing spin-orbit coupling. This manipulation was achieved through a subtle chemical modification, specifically the bay-area methylation. Consequently, this simple yet efficient approach expands the catalog of known molecular engineering strategies for synthesizing heavy atom-free, dual redox-active, yet still emissive and synthetically accessible photosensitizers.

Depth-dependent electronic band structure at the Au/CH3NH3PbI3-xClx junction.

The electronic properties of the interface between Au and organometallic triiodide perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3-xClx) were investigated by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS). CH3NH3PbI3-xClx films were prepared on Au surfaces by spin casting with various concentrations to control the film thickness. Their morphology was examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM). CH3NH3PbI3-xClx films exhibited a maximum valence band edge of 5.91 eV. The energy levels shifted downward by 0.26 eV with a perovskite coverage of 116.3 nm, indicating that band bending occurs at the interface. The observed energy level shift indicates an interface dipole at the Au/CH3NH3PbI3-xClx junction. These findings contribute to the understanding of how perovskite materials function in electronic devices and aid in the design of new perovskite materials.

Fluorine Functionalized Graphene Nano Platelets for Highly Stable Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells.

Edged-selectively fluorine (F) functionalized graphene nanoplatelets (EFGnPs-F) with a p-i-n structure of perovskite solar cells achieved 82% stability relative to initial performance over 30 days of air exposure without encapsulation. The enhanced stability stems from F-substitution on EFGnPs; fluorocarbons such as polytetrafluoroethylene are well-known for their superhydrophobic properties and being impervious to chemical degradation. These hydrophobic moieties tightly protect perovskite layers from air degradation. To directly compare the effect of similar hydrophilic graphene layers, edge-selectively hydrogen functionalized graphene nanoplatelet (EFGnPs-H) treated devices were tested under the same conditions. Like the pristine MAPbI3 perovskite devices, EFGnPs-H treated devices were completely degraded after 10 days. The hydrophobic properties of EFGnPs-F were characterized by contact angle measurement. The test results showed great water repellency compared to pristine perovskite films or EFGnPs-H coated films. This resulted in highly air-stable p-i-n perovskite solar cells.

Capillary Printing of Highly Aligned Silver Nanowire Transparent Electrodes for High-Performance Optoelectronic Devices.

Percolation networks of silver nanowires (AgNWs) are commonly used as transparent conductive electrodes (TCEs) for a variety of optoelectronic applications, but there have been no attempts to precisely control the percolation networks of AgNWs that critically affect the performances of TCEs. Here, we introduce a capillary printing technique to precisely control the NW alignment and the percolation behavior of AgNW networks. Notably, partially aligned AgNW networks exhibit a greatly lower percolation threshold, which leads to the substantial improvement of optical transmittance (96.7%) at a similar sheet resistance (19.5 Ω sq(-1)) as compared to random AgNW networks (92.9%, 20 Ω sq(-1)). Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs) using aligned AgNW electrodes show a 30% enhanced maximum luminance (33068 cd m(-2)) compared to that with random AgNWs and a high luminance efficiency (14.25 cd A(-1)), which is the highest value reported so far using indium-free transparent electrodes for fluorescent PLEDs. In addition, polymer solar cells (PSCs) using aligned AgNW electrodes exhibit a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 8.57%, the highest value ever reported to date for PSCs using AgNW electrodes.

Optimal top electrodes for inverted polymer solar cells.

Although polymer solar cells (PSCs) have received a tremendous amount of attention in recent years, a number of criteria must be met in order for them to be suitable as practical and commercially feasible power sources, including high performance, good air stability and inexpensive manufacturing. In this contribution, we determine the optimal top electrode for practical PSC fabrication by investigating the influence of the electrode material on the optical properties and performance of PSC devices. The optical properties of eight metals were considered, out of which three metal electrodes (aluminum (Al), silver (Ag), gold (Au)) with the best optical properties were used to prepare inverted PSC devices comprising a blended polymer thieno[3,4-b]thiophene/benzodithiophene (PTB7) and [6,6]-phenyl C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM). Among the photovoltaic parameters, the short circuit current density (JSC) was most strongly affected by the optical properties of the top electrode. In the results of the experiment, the J(SC) of the Al and Ag electrode devices was found to be approximately 13% (13.4 → 15.1 mA cm(-2)) higher than the Au electrode device due to the significant parasitic absorption of light by Au at wavelengths below 600 nm. In contrast, Al and Ag electrodes have high reflectance throughout the visible spectrum, which leads to high J(SC). Ag electrodes have relatively good stability to ambient exposure, maintaining over 96% of the original efficiency after 170 hours; this stability is comparable to Au. These data lead to the conclusion that Ag is the optimal top electrode material for use in inverted devices.

Synthesis of fluorescent organic nano-dots and their application as efficient color conversion layers.

Efficient conversion of light from short wavelengths to longer wavelengths using color conversion layers (CCLs) underpins the successful operation of numerous contemporary display and lighting technologies. Inorganic quantum dots, based on CdSe or InP, for example, have received much attention in this context, however, suffer from instability and toxic cadmium or phosphine chemistry. Organic nanoparticles (NPs), though less often studied, are capable of very competitive performance, including outstanding stability and water-processability. Surfactants, which are critical in stabilizing many types of nano-structures, have not yet been used extensively in organic NPs. Here we show the utility of surfactants in the synthesis and processing of organic NPs by thoroughly characterizing the effect of ionic and non-ionic surfactants on the properties of fluorescent organic NPs. Using this information, we identify surfactant processing conditions that result in nearly 100 % conversion of organic fluorophores into sub-micrometer particles, or nano-dots, with outstanding performance as CCLs. Such water dispersions are environmentally benign and efficiently convert light. They can be used for a range of fluorophores covering a full spectral gamut, with excellent color purity, including full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) values as low as 21 nm. Compared to inorganic (InP) reference CCLs, the organic nano-dot based CCLs show superior color conversion efficiency and substantially improved long-term stability.

Stable ZnS Electron Transport Layer for High-Performance Inverted Cadmium-Free Quantum Dot Light-Emitting Diodes.

We report high-efficiency and long-lifetime inverted green cadmium-free (InP-based) quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) using a stable ZnO/ZnS cascaded electron transport layer (ETL). We have successfully developed a strategy to spin-coat stable ZnS ETLs with a relatively higher conduction band minimum (CBM) and lower electron mobility than that of ZnO, which leads to balanced carrier injection and an improved device lifetime. Analysis shows that by using the ZnO/ZnS cascaded ETL, electron injection is reduced, resulting in an improved charge balance in the QD layer and suppressed exciton quenching, which preserves the emission properties of QDs. Optimized devices with ZnO/ZnS cascaded ETLs show a maximum external quantum efficiency of 10.8% and a maximum current efficiency of 37.5 cd/A; these efficiency values are an almost 2.2-fold improvement compared to those of reference devices without ZnS. The QLED devices also showed a remarkably long lifetime (LT70) of 265 h at an initial luminance of 1000 cd/m2. The predicted half-lifetime (LT50) at 100 cd/m2 is 60,255 h, which, to our knowledge, is currently the longest lifetime yet reported for InP-based green QLEDs.

Lithium Polystyrene Sulfonate as a Hole Transport Material in Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells.

Despite the exceptional efficiency of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), further improvements can be made to bring their power conversion efficiencies (PCE) closer to the Shockley-Queisser limit, while the development of cost-effective strategies to produce high-performance devices are needed for them to reach their potential as a widespread energy source. In this context, there is a need to improve existing charge transport layers (CTLs) or introduce new CTLs. In this contribution, we introduced a new polyelectrolyte (lithium poly(styrene sulfonate (PSS))) (Li:PSS) polyelectrolyte as an HTL in inverted PSCs, where Li+ can act as a counter ion for the PSS backbone. The negative charge on the PSS backbone can stabilize the presence of p-type carriers and p-doping at the anode. Simple Li:PSS performed poorly due to poor surface coverage and voids existence in perovskite film as well as low conductivity. PEDOT:PSS was added to increase the conductivity to the simple Li:PSS solution before its use which also resulted in lower performance. Furthermore, a bilayer of PEDOT:PSS and Li:PSS was employed, which outperformed simple PEDOT:PSS due to high quality of perovskite film with large grain size also the large electron injection barrier (ϕe ) impeded back diffusion of electrons towards anode. As a consequence, devices employing PEDOT:PSS / Li:PSS bilayers gave the highest PCE of 18.64%.

Endohedral fullerenes for organic photovoltaic devices.

So far, one of the fundamental limitations of organic photovoltaic (OPV) device power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) has been the low voltage output caused by a molecular orbital mismatch between the donor polymer and acceptor molecules. Here, we present a means of addressing the low voltage output by introducing novel trimetallic nitride endohedral fullerenes (TNEFs) as acceptor materials for use in photovoltaic devices. TNEFs were discovered in 1999 by Stevenson et al. ; for the first time derivatives of the TNEF acceptor, Lu(3)N@C(80), are synthesized and integrated into OPV devices. The reduced energy offset of the molecular orbitals of Lu(3)N@C(80) to the donor, poly(3-hexyl)thiophene (P3HT), reduces energy losses in the charge transfer process and increases the open circuit voltage (Voc) to 260 mV above reference devices made with [6,6]-phenyl-C(61)-butyric methyl ester (C(60)-PCBM) acceptor. PCEs >4% have been observed using P3HT as the donor material. This work clears a path towards higher PCEs in OPV devices by demonstrating that high-yield charge separation can occur with OPV systems that have a reduced donor/acceptor lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energy offset.

Hybrid Lead-Halide Polyelectrolytes as Interfacial Electron Extraction Layers in Inverted Organic Solar Cells.

A series of lead-halide based hybrid polyelectrolytes was prepared and used as interfacial layers in organic solar cells (OSCs) to explore their effect on the energy band structures and performance of OSCs. Nonconjugated polyelectrolytes based on ethoxylated polyethylenimine (PEIE) complexed with PbX2 (I, Br, and Cl) were prepared as polymeric analogs of the perovskite semiconductors CH3NH3PbX3. The organic/inorganic hybrid composites were deposited onto Indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates by solution processing, and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) measurements confirmed that the polyelectrolytes allowed the work function of the substrates to be controlled. In addition, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results showed that Pb(II) halide complexes were present in the thin film and that the Pb halide species did not bond covalently with the cationic polymer and confirmed the absence of additional chemical bonds. The composite ratio of organic and inorganic materials was optimized to improve the performance of OSCs. When PbBr2 was complexed with the PEIE material, the efficiency increased up to 3.567% via improvements in open circuit voltage and fill factor from the control device (0.3%). These results demonstrate that lead-halide based polyelectrolytes constitute hybrid interfacial layers which provide a novel route to control device characteristics via variation of the lead halide composition.

Light-Emitting Transistors with High Color Purity Using Perovskite Quantum Dot Emitters.

The class of organic-inorganic lead halides with perovskite crystal structures has recently emerged as promising materials for a variety of practical optoelectronic applications. In particular, hybrid halide perovskite quantum dots possess excellent intrinsic optoelectronic properties such as high color purity (full width at half-maximum of 24.59 nm) and photoluminescence quantum yields (92.7%). In this work, we demonstrate the use of perovskite quantum dot materials as an emissive layer of hybrid light-emitting transistors. To investigate the working mechanism of perovskite quantum dots in light-emitting transistors, we investigated the electrical and optical characteristics under both p-channel and n-channel operation. Using these materials, we have achieved perovskite quantum dot light-emitting transistors with high electron mobilities of up to 12.06 cm2·V-1 s-1, high brightness of up to 1.41 × 104 cd m-2, and enhanced external quantum efficiencies of up to 1.79% operating at a source-drain potential of 40 V.

Tungsten-Doped Zinc Oxide and Indium-Zinc Oxide Films as High-Performance Electron-Transport Layers in N-I-P Perovskite Solar Cells.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted tremendous research attention due to their potential as a next-generation photovoltaic cell. Transition metal oxides in N-I-P structures have been widely used as electron-transporting materials but the need for a high-temperature sintering step is incompatible with flexible substrate materials and perovskite materials which cannot withstand elevated temperatures. In this work, novel metal oxides prepared by sputtering deposition were investigated as electron-transport layers in planar PSCs with the N-I-P structure. The incorporation of tungsten in the oxide layer led to a power conversion efficiency (PCE) increase from 8.23% to 16.05% due to the enhanced electron transfer and reduced back-recombination. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images reveal that relatively large grain sizes in the perovskite phase with small grain boundaries were formed when the perovskite was deposited on tungsten-doped films. This study demonstrates that novel metal oxides can be used as in perovskite devices as electron transfer layers to improve the efficiency.

Improved injection in n-type organic transistors with conjugated polyelectrolytes.

To improve injection in n-type organic thin film transistors (OTFTs), a thin conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) layer was interposed between electrodes and the semiconductor layer. OTFTs were fabricated with [6,6]-phenyl-C(61) butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) and Au source and drain contacts. We demonstrate that the insertion of CPEs beneath top-contact Au source/drain electrodes can be a very effective strategy for improving the carrier injection and reducing turn-on threshold voltages of n-channel OTFTs. Ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS) indicates that the decrease of the electron injection barrier is consistent with organized dipoles at the metal/organic interface.

Exciton binding energies in conjugated polyelectrolyte films.

Molecular design: The electronic structure of conjugated polyelectrolytes as a function of ionization potential (IP) and electron affinity (EA) is determined using X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy (see figure). Different functional groups give rise to dissimilar transport gaps and exciton binding energies.

Pseudohalides in Lead-Based Perovskite Semiconductors.

The emerging class of lead halide perovskite (LHP) semiconductors offers a surprising combination of low cost, ease of preparation, outstanding material properties, and performance in optoelectronic devices that has not yet been observed in any other class of material. Considering their general ABX3 formula, the halide (X) composition in LHP compositions has proven to be one of the best handles to control the material characteristics such as bandgap, morphology, and electronic properties. However, compared to the amount of effort that has been expended to discover new A cations and B cations, relatively few reports have dealt with the subject of discovering new X anions outside of the series of halides (Cl- , Br- , I- ). In principal, a much wider range of anions with a -1 charge (pseudohalides) may form the ABX3 stoichiometry with Pb2+ , yet the general ability of polyatomic pseudohalides to form semiconducting perovskite crystal phases with Pb2+ remains an open question. Herein, the prospect of using polyatomic pseudohalide anions in LHP semiconductors is addressed.

Effect of counter-ions on the properties and performance of non-conjugated polyelectrolyte interlayers in solar cell and transistor devices.

We have investigated a series of non-conjugated polyelectrolytes (NPEs) which are based on a polyethylenimine (PEI) backbone with various counterions, such as Br- I- and BIm4 -, as interfacial layers at the electrodes of solar cells and transistor devices to improve the power conversion efficiency (PCE) and device performance. This new series of NPEs with different counterions are capable of forming electric dipoles at NPE/metal electrode interfaces; as a consequence tuning of the energy levels, and work function (WF) of the electrodes is possible. Using this approach, the PCE of organic solar cells could be improved from 1.05% (without NPEs) to 6.77% (with NPEs) while the charge carrier mobility and on/off ratio of FET devices could be improved, showing the broad utility of this type of material. This study provides a novel approach towards investigating the influence of ions on interfacial dipoles and electrode WFs in solution-processed semiconducting devices.

Morphology-Dependent Hole Transfer under Negligible HOMO Difference in Non-Fullerene Acceptor-Based Ternary Polymer Solar Cells.

In the field of organic solar cells, it has been generally accepted until recently that a difference in band energies of at least 0.3 eV between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) level of the donor and the HOMO of the acceptor is required to provide adequate driving force for efficient photoinduced hole transfer due to the large binding energy of excitons in organic materials. In this work, we investigate polymeric donor:non-fullerene acceptor junctions in binary and ternary blend polymer solar cells, which exhibit efficient photoinduced hole transfer despite negligible HOMO offset and demonstrate that hole transfer in this system is dependent on morphology. The morphology of the organic blend was gradually tuned by controlling the amount of ITIC and PC70BM. High external quantum efficiency was achieved at long wavelengths, despite ITIC-to-PC70BM ratio of 1:9, which indicates efficient photoinduced hole transfer from ITIC to the donor despite an undesirable HOMO energy offset. Transient absorption spectra further confirm that hole transfer from ITIC to the donor becomes more efficient upon optimizing the morphology of the ternary blend compared to that of donor:ITIC binary blend.

Alkoxybenzothiadiazole-Based Fullerene and Nonfullerene Polymer Solar Cells with High Shunt Resistance for Indoor Photovoltaic Applications.

We synthesized three semicrystalline polymers (PTTBTBO, PDTBTBO, and P2FDTBTBO) by modulating the intra- and intermolecular noncovalent Coulombic interactions and investigated their photovoltaic characteristics under various light intensities. Low series (Rs) and high shunt (Rsh) resistances are essential prerequisites for good device properties under standard illumination (100 mW cm-2). Considering these factors, among three polymers, PDTBTBO polymer solar cells (PSCs) exhibited the most desirable characteristics, with peak power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of 7.52 and 9.60% by being blended with PC71BM under standard and dim light (2.5 mW cm-2), respectively. P2FDTBTBO PSCs exhibited a low PCE of 3.69% under standard light due to significant charge recombination with high Rs (9.42 Ω cm2). However, the PCE was remarkably improved by 2.3 times (8.33% PCE) under dim light, showing negligible decrease in open-circuit voltage and remarkable increase in fill factor, which is due to an exceptionally high Rsh of over 1000 kΩ cm2. Rs is less significant under dim light because the generated current is too small to cause noticeable Rs-induced voltage losses. Instead, high Rsh becomes more important to avoid leakage currents. This work provides important tips to further optimize PSCs for indoor applications with low-power electronic devices such as Internet of things sensors.