Type I IFN Sensing by cDCs and CD4+ T Cell Help Are Both Requisite for Cross-Priming of AAV Capsid-Specific CD8+ T Cells.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are widely used in clinical gene therapy to correct genetic disease by in vivo gene transfer. Although the vectors are useful, in part because of their limited immunogenicity, immune responses directed at vector components have complicated applications in humans. These include, for instance, innate immune sensing of vector components by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), which sense the vector DNA genome via Toll-like receptor 9. Adaptive immune responses employ antigen presentation by conventional dendritic cells (cDCs), which leads to cross-priming of capsid-specific CD8+ T cells. In this study, we sought to determine the mechanisms that promote licensing of cDCs, which is requisite for CD8+ T cell activation. Blockage of type 1 interferon (T1 IFN) signaling by monoclonal antibody therapy prevented cross-priming. Furthermore, experiments in cell-type-restricted knockout mice showed a specific requirement for the receptor for T1 IFN (IFNaR) in cDCs. In contrast, natural killer (NK) cells are not needed, indicating a direct rather than indirect effect of T1 IFN on cDCs. In addition, co-stimulation by CD4+ T cells via CD40-CD40L was required for cross-priming, and blockage of co-stimulation but not of T1 IFN additionally reduced antibody formation against capsid. These mechanistic insights inform the development of targeted immune interventions.

Plasmacytoid and conventional dendritic cells cooperate in crosspriming AAV capsid-specific CD8+ T cells.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a replication-deficient parvovirus that is extensively used as a gene therapy vector. CD8+ T-cell responses against the AAV capsid protein can, however, affect therapeutic efficacy. Little is known about the in vivo mechanism that leads to the crosspriming of CD8+ T cells against the input viral capsid antigen. In this study, we report that the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-MyD88 pattern-recognition receptor pathway is uniquely capable of initiating this response. By contrast, the absence of TLR2, STING, or the addition of TLR4 agonist has no effect. Surprisingly, both conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) are required for the crosspriming of capsid-specific CD8+ T cells, whereas other antigen-presenting cells are not involved. TLR9 signaling is specifically essential in pDCs but not in cDCs, indicating that sensing of the viral genome by pDCs activates cDCs in trans to cross-present capsid antigen during CD8+ T-cell activation. Cross-presentation and crosspriming depend not only on TLR9, but also on interferon type I signaling, and both mechanisms can be inhibited by administering specific molecules to prevent induction of capsid-specific CD8+ T cells. Thus, these outcomes directly point to therapeutic interventions and demonstrate that innate immune blockade can eliminate unwanted immune responses in gene therapy.

Increased inflammation but similar physical composition and function in older-aged, HIV-1 infected subjects.

BACKGROUND: Systemic immune activation (inflammation) and immunosenescence develop in some people with advancing age. This process, known as "inflamm-aging," is associated with physical frailty and sarcopenia. Meanwhile, successful antiretroviral therapy has led to a growing number of older HIV-1-infected individuals who face both age-related and HIV-1-related inflammation, which may synergistically promote physical decline, including frailty and sarcopenia. The purpose of our study was to determine if inflammation during treated HIV-1 infection worsens physical impairment in older individuals. METHODS: We determined the severity of HIV-associated inflammation and physical performance (strength and endurance) in 21 older HIV-infected individuals (54-69 years) receiving suppressive antiretroviral therapy, balanced for confounding variables including age, anthropometrics, and co-morbidities with 10 uninfected control individuals. Biomarkers for microbial translocation (lipopolysaccharide [LPS]), inflammation (soluble CD14 [sCD14], osteopontin, C-reactive protein [CRP], interleukin-6 [IL-6], soluble ICAM-1 [sICAM-1] and soluble VCAM-1 [sVCAM-1]), and coagulopathy (D-dimer) were assayed in plasma. Activation phenotypes of CD4(+)T cells, CD8(+) T cells and monocytes were measured by flow cytometry. Physical performance was measured by 400 m walking speed, a short physical performance battery [SPPB], and lower extremity muscle strength and fatigue. RESULTS: Overall physical function was similar in the uninfected and HIV-infected groups. Compared to uninfected individuals, the HIV-infected group had elevated levels of sCD14 (P < 0.001), CRP (P < 0.001) and IL-6 (P = 0.003) and an increased frequency of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells with an immunosenescent CD57(+) phenotype (P = 0.004 and P = 0.043, respectively). Neither plasma inflammatory biomarkers nor CD57(+) T cells correlated with CD4(+) T cell counts. Furthermore, none of the elevated inflammatory biomarkers in the HIV-infected subjects were associated with any of the physical performance results. CONCLUSIONS: When age-related co-morbidities were carefully balanced between the uninfected and HIV-infected groups, no evidence of inflammation-associated physical impairment was detected. Despite careful balancing for age, BMI, medications and co-morbidities, the HIV-infected group still displayed evidence of significant chronic inflammation, including elevated sCD14, CRP, IL-6 and CD57(+) T cells, although the magnitude of this inflammation was unrelated to physical impairment.

Combination of immune and viral factors distinguishes low-risk versus high-risk HIV-1 disease progression in HLA-B*5701 subjects.

HLA-B*5701 is the host factor most strongly associated with slow HIV-1 disease progression, although rates can vary within this group. Underlying mechanisms are not fully understood but likely involve both immunological and virological dynamics. The present study investigated HIV-1 in vivo evolution and epitope-specific CD8(+) T cell responses in six HLA-B*5701 patients who had not received antiretroviral treatment, monitored from early infection for up to 7 years. The subjects were classified as high-risk progressors (HRPs) or low-risk progressors (LRPs) based on baseline CD4(+) T cell counts. Dynamics of HIV-1 Gag p24 evolution and multifunctional CD8(+) T cell responses were evaluated by high-resolution phylogenetic analysis and polychromatic flow cytometry, respectively. In all subjects, substitutions occurred more frequently in flanking regions than in HLA-B*5701-restricted epitopes. In LRPs, p24 sequence diversity was significantly lower; sequences exhibited a higher degree of homoplasy and more constrained mutational patterns than HRPs. The HIV-1 intrahost evolutionary rate was also lower in LRPs and followed a strict molecular clock, suggesting neutral genetic drift rather than positive selection. Additionally, polyfunctional CD8(+) T cell responses, particularly to TW10 and QW9 epitopes, were more robust in LRPs, who also showed significantly higher interleukin-2 (IL-2) production in early infection. Overall, the findings indicate that HLA-B*5701 patients with higher CD4 counts at baseline have a lower risk of HIV-1 disease progression because of the interplay between specific HLA-linked immune responses and the rate and mode of viral evolution. The study highlights the power of a multidisciplinary approach, integrating high-resolution evolutionary and immunological data, to understand mechanisms underlying HIV-1 pathogenesis.

Sepsis induces early alterations in innate immunity that impact mortality to secondary infection.

Sepsis, the systemic inflammatory response to microbial infection, induces changes in both innate and adaptive immunity that presumably lead to increased susceptibility to secondary infections, multiorgan failure, and death. Using a model of murine polymicrobial sepsis whose severity approximates human sepsis, we examined outcomes and defined requirements for survival after secondary Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia or disseminated Listeria monocytogenes infection. We demonstrate that early after sepsis neutrophil numbers and function are decreased, whereas monocyte recruitment through the CCR2/MCP-1 pathway and function are enhanced. Consequently, lethality to Pseudomonas pneumonia is increased early but not late after induction of sepsis. In contrast, lethality to listeriosis, whose eradication is dependent upon monocyte/macrophage phagocytosis, is actually decreased both early and late after sepsis. Adaptive immunity plays little role in these secondary infectious responses. This study demonstrates that sepsis promotes selective early, impaired innate immune responses, primarily in neutrophils, that lead to a pathogen-specific, increased susceptibility to secondary infections.

MerTK regulates thymic selection of autoreactive T cells.

T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes (T1D) are believed to be the result in part of inefficient negative selection of self-specific thymocytes. However, the events regulating thymic negative selection are not fully understood. In the current study, we demonstrate that nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice lacking expression of the Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) have reduced inflammation of the pancreatic islets and fail to develop diabetes. Furthermore, NOD mice deficient in MerTK expression (Mer(-/-)) exhibit a reduced frequency of beta cell-specific T cells independent of immunoregulatory effectors. The establishment of bone marrow chimeric mice demonstrated that the block in beta cell autoimmunity required hematopoietic-derived cells lacking MerTK expression. Notably, fetal thymic organ cultures and self-peptide administration showed increased thymic negative selection in Mer(-/-) mice. Finally, thymic dendritic cells (DC) prepared from Mer(-/-) mice exhibited an increased capacity to induce thymocyte apoptosis in a peptide-specific manner in vitro. These findings provide evidence for a unique mechanism involving MerTK-mediated regulation of thymocyte negative selection and thymic DC, and suggest a role for MerTK in contributing to beta cell autoimmunity.

Influence of PTPN22 Allotypes on Innate and Adaptive Immune Function in Health and Disease.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 22 (PTPN22) regulates a panoply of leukocyte signaling pathways. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in PTPN22, rs2476601, is associated with increased risk of Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) and other autoimmune diseases. Over the past decade PTPN22 has been studied intensely in T cell receptor (TCR) and B cell receptor (BCR) signaling. However, the effect of the minor allele on PTPN22 function in TCR signaling is controversial with some reports concluding it has enhanced function and blunts TCR signaling and others reporting it has reduced function and increases TCR signaling. More recently, the core function of PTPN22 as well as functional derangements imparted by the autoimmunity-associated variant allele of PTPN22 have been examined in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. In this review we will discuss the known functions of PTPN22 in human cells, and we will elaborate on how autoimmunity-associated variants influence these functions across the panoply of immune cells that express PTPN22. Further, we consider currently unresolved questions that require clarification on the role of PTPN22 in immune cell function.

ENTPD3 Marks Mature Stem Cell-Derived ß-Cells Formed by Self-Aggregation In Vitro.

Stem cell-derived ß-like cells (sBC) carry the promise of providing an abundant source of insulin-producing cells for use in cell replacement therapy for patients with diabetes, potentially allowing widespread implementation of a practical cure. To achieve their clinical promise, sBC need to function comparably with mature adult ß-cells, but as yet they display varying degrees of maturity. Indeed, detailed knowledge of the events resulting in human ß-cell maturation remains obscure. Here we show that sBC spontaneously self-enrich into discreet islet-like cap structures within in vitro cultures, independent of exogenous maturation conditions. Multiple complementary assays demonstrate that this process is accompanied by functional maturation of the self-enriched sBC (seBC); however, the seBC still contain distinct subpopulations displaying different maturation levels. Interestingly, the surface protein ENTPD3 (also known as nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-3 [NDPTase3]) is a specific marker of the most mature seBC population and can be used for mature seBC identification and sorting. Our results illuminate critical aspects of in vitro sBC maturation and provide important insights toward developing functionally mature sBC for diabetes cell replacement therapy.

Use of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells to Build Isogenic Systems and Investigate Type 1 Diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a disease that arises due to complex immunogenetic mechanisms. Key cell-cell interactions involved in the pathogenesis of T1D are activation of autoreactive T cells by dendritic cells (DC), migration of T cells across endothelial cells (EC) lining capillary walls into the islets of Langerhans, interaction of T cells with macrophages in the islets, and killing of ß-cells by autoreactive CD8+ T cells. Overall, pathogenic cell-cell interactions are likely regulated by the individual's collection of genetic T1D-risk variants. To accurately model the role of genetics, it is essential to build systems to interrogate single candidate genes in isolation during the interactions of cells that are essential for disease development. However, obtaining single-donor matched cells relevant to T1D is a challenge. Sourcing these genetic variants from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) avoids this limitation. Herein, we have differentiated iPSC from one donor into DC, macrophages, EC, and ß-cells. Additionally, we also engineered T cell avatars from the same donor to provide an in vitro platform to study genetic influences on these critical cellular interactions. This proof of concept demonstrates the ability to derive an isogenic system from a single donor to study these relevant cell-cell interactions. Our system constitutes an interdisciplinary approach with a controlled environment that provides a proof-of-concept for future studies to determine the role of disease alleles (e.g. IFIH1, PTPN22, SH2B3, TYK2) in regulating cell-cell interactions and cell-specific contributions to the pathogenesis of T1D.

IFNgamma primes macrophages for inflammatory activation by high molecular weight hyaluronan.

The objective was to assess outcomes of IFNgamma-priming upon macrophage activation by the synovial macromolecule high molecular weight hyaluronan [HMW-HA] in the context of rheumatoid arthritis inflammation. Human macrophages primed by IFNgamma and activated by HMW-HA were evaluated for cytokine secretion by ELISA and Milliplex assay and activation profiles by nuclear transcription factor EIA. IFNgamma-primed, HMW-HA-activated macrophages produced elevated levels of TNF and secreted the TH1 cytokine IL-12p70, while IFNgamma suppressed HMW-HA-induced secretion of the regulatory cytokine IL-10 and activation of the transcription factor c-Jun. IFNgamma modulates the HMW-HA-induced cytokine response profile promoting macrophage activation and inflammatory TH1 cytokine secretion.

Harmine enhances the activity of the HIV-1 latency-reversing agents ingenol A and SAHA.

Infection with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) remains incurable because long-lived, latently-infected cells persist during prolonged antiretroviral therapy. Attempts to pharmacologically reactivate and purge the latent reservoir with latency reactivating agents (LRAs) such as protein kinase C (PKC) agonists (e.g. ingenol A) or histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (e.g. SAHA) have shown promising but incomplete efficacy. Using the J-Lat T cell model of HIV latency, we found that the plant-derived compound harmine enhanced the efficacy of existing PKC agonist LRAs in reactivating latently-infected cells. Treatment with harmine increased not only the number of reactivated cells but also increased HIV transcription and protein expression on a per-cell basis. Importantly, we observed a synergistic effect when harmine was used in combination with ingenol A and the HDAC inhibitor SAHA. An investigation into the mechanism revealed that harmine, when used with LRAs, increased the activity of NFκB, MAPK p38, and ERK1/2. Harmine treatment also resulted in reduced expression of HEXIM1, a negative regulator of transcriptional elongation. Thus, harmine enhanced the effects of LRAs by increasing the availability of transcription factors needed for HIV reactivation and promoting transcriptional elongation. Combination therapies with harmine and LRAs could benefit patients by achieving deeper reactivation of the latent pool of HIV provirus.

Dendritic Cells Treated with Exogenous Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase Maintain an Immature Phenotype and Suppress Antigen-specific T cell Proliferation.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an intracellular enzyme responsible for catalyzing the rate limiting step of tryptophan catabolism, plays a critical role in immune cell suppression and tolerance. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-mediated depletion of the essential amino acid tryptophan increases susceptibility of T cells to apoptosis, while kynurenine and its downstream metabolites, such as 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid and quinolinic acid, have a direct cytotoxic effect on conventional effector T cells. Additionally, IDO-expressing antigen presenting cells (APCs) induce proliferation of regulatory T cells. When expressed by an APC, the immunosuppressive effects of IDO may act directly on the APC as well as indirectly upon local T cells. One approach to elicit immune tolerance or reduce inflammation therefore is to promote expression of IDO. However, this approach is constrained by several factors including the potential for deleterious biologic effects of conventional IDO-inducing agents such as interferon gamma (IFNγ), and the potential limitations of constitutive gene transfection. Alternatively, direct action of recombinant IDO enzyme supplied exogenously as a potential therapeutic in the extracellular space has not been investigated previously, and is the focus of this work. Results indicate exogenous recombinant human IDO supplementation influences murine dendritic cell (DC) maturation and ability to suppress antigen specific T cell proliferation. Following treatment, DCs were refractory to maturation by LPS as defined by co-stimulatory molecule expression (CD80 and CD86) and major histocompatibility complex II (MHC-II) expression. Dendritic cells exhibited skewing toward an anti-inflammatory cytokine release profile, with reduced secretion of IL-12p70 and maintained basal level of secreted IL-10. Notably, IDO-treated DCs suppressed proliferation of ovalbumin (OVA) antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the presence of cognate antigen presentation in a manner dependent on active enzyme, as introduction of IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-tryptophan, restored T cell proliferation. Defined media experiments indicate a cumulative role for both tryptophan depletion and kynurenine presence, in the suppressive programming of DCs. In sum, we report that exogenously supplied IDO maintains immunoregulatory function on DCs, suggesting that IDO may have potential as a therapeutic protein for suppressive programming with application toward inflammation and tolerance.

Neutrophil Cytosolic Factor 1 in Dendritic Cells Promotes Autoreactive CD8+ T Cell Activation via Cross-Presentation in Type 1 Diabetes.

Aims: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical in driving the onset of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Ablation of ROS derived from phagocytic NADPH oxidase 2 is protective against autoimmune diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. However, the mechanisms of NADPH oxidase 2-derived ROS in T1D pathogenesis need to be elucidated. Here, we have examined the role of Ncf1 (the regulatory subunit of NADPH oxidase 2) in dendritic cells (DC). Results:Ncf1-mutant DCs exhibit reduced ability to activate autoreactive CD8+ T cells despite no difference in co-stimulatory molecule expression or pro-inflammatory cytokine production. When provided with exogenous whole-protein antigen, Ncf1-mutant NOD DCs showed strong phagosome acidification and rapid antigen degradation, which lead to an absence of protein translocation into the cytoplasm and deficient antigenic peptide loading on MHC Class I molecules. Innovation: This study demonstrates that Ncf1 (p47phox) is required for activation and effector function of CD8+ T cells by acting both intrinsically within the T cell as well as within professional antigen presenting cells. Conclusion: ROS promote CD8+ T cell activation by facilitating autoantigen cross-presentation by DCs. ROS scavengers could potentially represent an important component of therapies aiming to disrupt autoantigen presentation and activation of CD8+ T cells in individuals at-risk for developing T1D.

CRISPR/Cas9 knockout of USP18 enhances type I IFN responsiveness and restricts HIV-1 infection in macrophages.

The IFN-stimulated gene ubiquitin-specific proteinase 18 (USP18) encodes a protein that negatively regulates T1 IFN signaling via stearic inhibition of JAK1 recruitment to the IFN-α receptor 2 subunit (IFNAR2). Here, we demonstrate that USP18 expression is induced by HIV-1 in a T1 IFN-dependent manner. Experimental depletion of USP18 by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) gene editing results in a significant restriction of HIV-1 replication in an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived macrophage model. In the absence of USP18, macrophages have increased responsiveness to stimulation with T1 IFNs with prolonged phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT2 and increased expression of IFN-stimulated genes that are key for antiviral responses. Interestingly, HIV-1 requires some signaling through the T1 IFN receptor to replicate efficiently because a neutralizing antibody that inhibits T1 IFN activity reduces HIV-1 replication rate in monocyte-derived macrophages. USP18 induction by HIV-1 tunes the IFN response to optimal levels allowing for efficient transcription from the HIV-1 LTR promoter while minimizing the T1 IFN-induced antiviral response that would otherwise restrict viral replication and spread. Finally, iPSC and CRISPR/Cas9 gene targeting offer a powerful tool to study host factors that regulate innate immune responses.

Application of a Genetic Risk Score to Racially Diverse Type 1 Diabetes Populations Demonstrates the Need for Diversity in Risk-Modeling.

Prior studies identified HLA class-II and 57 additional loci as contributors to genetic susceptibility for type 1 diabetes (T1D). We hypothesized that race and/or ethnicity would be contextually important for evaluating genetic risk markers previously identified from Caucasian/European cohorts. We determined the capacity for a combined genetic risk score (GRS) to discriminate disease-risk subgroups in a racially and ethnically diverse cohort from the southeastern U.S. including 637 T1D patients, 46 at-risk relatives having two or more T1D-related autoantibodies (≥2AAb+), 790 first-degree relatives (≤1AAb+), 68 second-degree relatives (≤1 AAb+), and 405 controls. GRS was higher among Caucasian T1D and at-risk subjects versus ≤ 1AAb+ relatives or controls (P < 0.001). GRS receiver operating characteristic AUC (AUROC) for T1D versus controls was 0.86 (P < 0.001, specificity = 73.9%, sensitivity = 83.3%) among all Caucasian subjects and 0.90 for Hispanic Caucasians (P < 0.001, specificity = 86.5%, sensitivity = 84.4%). Age-at-diagnosis negatively correlated with GRS (P < 0.001) and associated with HLA-DR3/DR4 diplotype. Conversely, GRS was less robust (AUROC = 0.75) and did not correlate with age-of-diagnosis for African Americans. Our findings confirm GRS should be further used in Caucasian populations to assign T1D risk for clinical trials designed for biomarker identification and development of personalized treatment strategies. We also highlight the need to develop a GRS model that accommodates racial diversity.

Isogenic Cellular Systems Model the Impact of Genetic Risk Variants in the Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes.

At least 57 independent loci within the human genome confer varying degrees of risk for the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D). The majority of these variants are thought to contribute to overall genetic risk by modulating host innate and adaptive immune responses, ultimately resulting in a loss of immunological tolerance to ß cell antigens. Early efforts to link specific risk variants with functional alterations in host immune responses have employed animal models or genotype-selected individuals from clinical bioresource banks. While some notable genotype:phenotype associations have been described, there remains an urgent need to accelerate the discovery of causal variants and elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which susceptible alleles alter immune functions. One significant limitation has been the inability to study human T1D risk loci on an isogenic background. The advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and genome-editing technologies have made it possible to address a number of these outstanding questions. Specifically, the ability to drive multiple cell fates from iPSC under isogenic conditions now facilitates the analysis of causal variants in multiple cellular lineages. Bioinformatic analyses have revealed that T1D risk genes cluster within a limited number of immune signaling pathways, yet the relevant immune cell subsets and cellular activation states in which candidate risk genes impact cellular activities remain largely unknown. In this review, we summarize the functional impact of several candidate risk variants on host immunity in T1D and present an isogenic disease-in-a-dish model system for interrogating risk variants, with the goal of expediting precision therapeutics in T1D.

HIV-1 Infection Primes Macrophages Through STAT Signaling to Promote Enhanced Inflammation and Viral Replication.

Macrophages play important roles in HIV-1 pathogenesis as targets for viral replication and mediators of chronic inflammation. Similar to IFNγ-priming, HIV-1 primes macrophages, resulting in hyperresponsiveness to subsequent toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation and increased inflammatory cytokine production. However, the specific molecular mechanism of HIV-1 priming and whether cells must be productively infected or if uninfected bystander cells also are primed by HIV-1 remains unclear. To explore these questions, human macrophages were primed by IFNγ or infected with HIV-1 before activation by TLR ligands. Transcriptome profiling by microarray revealed a gene expression profile for IFNγ-primed cells that was further modulated by the addition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). HIV-1 infection elicited a gene expression profile that correlated strongly with the profile induced by IFNγ (r = .679, p = .003). Similar to IFNγ, HIV-1 enhanced TLR ligand-induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF) protein expression and release. Increased TNF production was limited to productively infected cells. Specific signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)1 and STAT3 inhibitors suppressed HIV-1-mediated enhancement of TLR-induced TNF expression as well as HIV-1 replication. These findings indicate that viral replication and inflammation are linked through a common IFNγ-like, STAT-dependent pathway and that HIV-1-induced STAT1 and STAT3 signaling are involved in both inflammation and HIV-1 replication. Systemic innate immune activation is a hallmark of active HIV-1 replication. Our study shows that inflammation may develop as a consequence of HIV-1 triggering STAT-IFN pathways to support viral replication.

Intestinal Epithelial Cell Regulation of Adaptive Immune Dysfunction in Human Type 1 Diabetes.

Environmental factors contribute to the initiation, progression, and maintenance of type 1 diabetes (T1D), although a single environmental trigger for disease has not been identified. Studies have documented the contribution of immunity within the gastrointestinal tract (GI) to the expression of autoimmunity at distal sites. Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) regulate local and systemic immunologic homeostasis through physical and biochemical interactions with innate and adaptive immune populations. We hypothesize that a loss in the tolerance-inducing nature of the GI tract occurs within T1D and is due to altered IECs' innate immune function. As a first step in addressing this hypothesis, we contrasted the global immune microenvironment within the GI tract of individuals with T1D as well as evaluated the IEC-specific effects on adaptive immune cell phenotypes. The soluble and cellular immune microenvironment within the duodenum, the soluble mediator profile of primary IECs derived from the same duodenal tissues, and the effect of the primary IECs' soluble mediator profile on T-cell expansion and polarization were evaluated. Higher levels of IL-17C and beta-defensin 2 (BD-2) mRNA in the T1D-duodenum were observed. Higher frequencies of type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) and CD8+CXCR3+ T-cells (Tc1) were also observed in T1D-duodenal tissues, concomitant with lower frequencies of type 3 ILC (ILC3) and CD8+CCR6+ T-cells (Tc17). Higher levels of proinflammatory mediators (IL-17C and BD-2) in the absence of similar changes in mediators associated with homeostasis (interleukin 10 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin) were also observed in T1D-derived primary IEC cultures. T1D-derived IEC culture supernatants induced more robust CD8+ T-cell proliferation along with enhanced polarization of Tc1 populations, at the expense of Tc17 polarization, as well as the expansion of CXCR3+CCR6+/- Tregs, indicative of a Th1-like and less regulatory phenotype. These data demonstrate a proinflammatory microenvironment of the T1D-duodenum, whereby IECs have the potential to contribute to the expansion and polarization of innate and adaptive immune cells. Although these data do not discern whether these observations are not simply a consequence of T1D, the data indicate that the T1D-GI tract has the capacity to foster a permissive environment under which autoreactive T-cells could be expanded and polarized.

The HIV-1 protease inhibitor nelfinavir activates PP2 and inhibits MAPK signaling in macrophages: a pathway to reduce inflammation.

The HIV-1 PI NFV has off-target effects upon host enzymes, including inhibition of the 20S proteasome, resulting in activation of PP1. HIV-1-associated monocyte/macrophage activation, in part a result of systemically elevated levels of microbial products including LPS, is associated with risk of mortality, independent of viremia or CD4 T cell loss. This study tested the hypothesis that activation of protein phosphatases by NFV would reduce activation of monocytes/macrophages through dephosphorylation of signal transduction proteins. NFV uniquely blocked LPS-induced production by human monocyte-derived macrophages of the inflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-6, as well as sCD14. Although NFV failed to modulate NF-κB, NFV treatment reduced phosphorylation of AKT and MAPKs. Inhibition of PP2 with okadaic acid blocked the anti-inflammatory effect of NFV, whereas the PP1 inhibitor calyculin A failed to counter the anti-inflammatory effects of NFV. For in vivo studies, plasma sCD14 and LPS were monitored in a cohort of 31 pediatric HIV-1 patients for over 2 years of therapy. Therapy, including NFV, reduced sCD14 levels significantly compared with IDV or RTV, independent of ΔLPS levels, VL, CD4 T cell frequency, or age. The hypothesis was supported as NFV induced activation of PP2 in macrophages, resulting in disruption of inflammatory cell signaling pathways. In vivo evidence supports that NFV may offer beneficial effects independent of antiviral activity by reducing severity of chronic innate immune activation in HIV-1 infection.

Proteome bioprofiles distinguish between M1 priming and activation states in human macrophages.

Macrophage activation is a dynamic process that results in diverse functional outcomes ranging from immunoregulation to inflammation. The proinflammatory, or M1, response is a complex, bimodal progression composed of a "prime," classically through IFN-gamma, and "trigger," such as LPS. To characterize the physiological response of M1 activation, a systems biology approach was applied to determine the intracellular proteome bioprofiles of IFN-gamma-and LPS-treated primary human macrophages. Our goal was to develop intracellular proteomic fingerprints to serve as novel correlates of macrophage priming and/or activation to augment the existing approaches of analyzing secreted cytokines and cell-surface protein expression. The majority of the proteome, approximately 78%, remained stable during activation, representing the core proteome. In contrast, three distinct patterns defined response proteomes: IFN-gamma-specific, LPS-specific, or IFN-gamma- and LPS-shared or M1-specific. Although steady-state expression levels of proteins involved in energy metabolism and immune response were increased during priming and triggering, changes in protein and fatty acid metabolism, signaling, and transport pathways were most apparent. Unique proteomic fingerprints distinguish among IFN-gamma-specific, LPS-specific, or M1-specific activation states and provide a clear molecular, archeological profile to infer recent history of cells, as well as correlates for chronic macrophage activation in health and disease.