Human identification: an investigation of 3D models of paranasal sinuses to establish a biological profile on a modern UK population.

Medical imaging is a valuable source for facilitating empirical research and provides an accessible gateway for developing novel forensic anthropological methods for analysis including 3D modelling. This is especially critical for the United Kingdom (UK), where methods developed from modern UK populations do not currently exist. This study introduces a new approach to assist in human identification using 3D models of the paranasal sinuses. The models were produced from a database of 500 modern CT scans provided by University College London Hospital. Linear measurements and elliptic Fourier coefficients taken from 1500 three-dimensional models across six ethnic groups assessed by one-way ANOVA and discriminant function analysis showed a range of classification rates with certain rates reaching 75-85.7% (p < 0.05) in correctly classifying age and sex according to size and shape. The findings offer insights into the potential for employing paranasal sinuses as an attribute for establishing the identification of unknown human remains in future crime reconstructions.

Computer modeling and validation testing for glenoid component rotation and optimal glenoid screw angles for reverse shoulder arthroplasty in an Asian population.

PURPOSE: Good initial fixation of glenoid component for reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) relies on component placement and screw purchase in the scapula bone. This is especially difficult in an Asian population with small glenoid geometry. Optimal glenoid component roll angle and screw angulation to achieve the longest screws for best fixation has not been defined in the current literature. METHODS: Computer 3D modelling of 133 scapulas with RTSA performed were analyzed to determine patient specific optimal glenoid roll angle (GRA) for the longest bi-cortical screws attainable. The cranial-caudal angle (CCA), anterior-posterior angle (APA) and lengths for the superior and inferior screws were measured. Validation testing using calculated average (CA) angles and rounded average (RA) angles to the nearest 5 degree were recomputed for each case to determine the bi-cortical screw lengths achievable. The CA and RA screw lengths were compared against patient specific modelling using paired-sample t-tests. RESULTS: Average GRA was - 1.6°, almost perpendicular to the long axis of the glenoid and achieves an average bi-cortical screw length of 51.3 mm and 45.5 mm for the superior and inferior screws respectively. The CCA and APA were 9.1° cranial and 6.5° posterior for the superior screw and screw angulation of 11.2° caudal and 0.7° anterior for the inferior screw. Validation testing shows statistically shorter screw lengths in the CA and RA models compared to patient specific modelling (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Validation testing with average angles for GRA, CCA and APA demonstrates strong patient heterogeneity and anatomical variation. Despite this, screw lengths attainable in the RA group were > 38 mm with good safety profile. Surgeons may consider the additional use of navigation-assisted, or 3D printed patient specific instrumentation to optimize baseplate and screw configuration for RTSA.

Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase Complex-Protein Disulphide Isomerase Assemblies in the Thiol-Disulphide Exchange Reactions: Portrayal of Precursor-to-Successor Complexes.

The human Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase Complex (hVKORC1), a key enzyme that converts vitamin K into the form necessary for blood clotting, requires for its activation the reducing equivalents supplied by its redox partner through thiol-disulphide exchange reactions. The functionally related molecular complexes assembled during this process have never been described, except for a proposed de novo model of a 'precursor' complex of hVKORC1 associated with protein disulphide isomerase (PDI). Using numerical approaches (in silico modelling and molecular dynamics simulation), we generated alternative 3D models for each molecular complex bonded either covalently or non-covalently. These models differ in the orientation of the PDI relative to hVKORC1 and in the cysteine residue involved in forming protein-protein disulphide bonds. Based on a comparative analysis of these models' shape, folding, and conformational dynamics, the most probable putative complexes, mimicking the 'precursor', 'intermediate', and 'successor' states, were suggested. In addition, we propose using these complexes to develop the 'allo-network drugs' necessary for treating blood diseases.

Synergy of Mutation-Induced Effects in Human Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase: Perspectives and Challenges for Allo-Network Modulator Design.

The human Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase Complex (hVKORC1), a key enzyme transforming vitamin K into the form necessary for blood clotting, requires for its activation the reducing equivalents delivered by its redox partner through thiol-disulfide exchange reactions. The luminal loop (L-loop) is the principal mediator of hVKORC1 activation, and it is a region frequently harbouring numerous missense mutations. Four L-loop hVKORC1 mutants, suggested in vitro as either resistant (A41S, H68Y) or completely inactive (S52W, W59R), were studied in the oxidised state by numerical approaches (in silico). The DYNASOME and POCKETOME of each mutant were characterised and compared to the native protein, recently described as a modular protein composed of the structurally stable transmembrane domain (TMD) and the intrinsically disordered L-loop, exhibiting quasi-independent dynamics. The DYNASOME of mutants revealed that L-loop missense point mutations impact not only its folding and dynamics, but also those of the TMD, highlighting a strong mutation-specific interdependence between these domains. Another consequence of the mutation-induced effects manifests in the global changes (geometric, topological, and probabilistic) of the newly detected cryptic pockets and the alternation of the recognition properties of the L-loop with its redox protein. Based on our results, we postulate that (i) intra-protein allosteric regulation and (ii) the inherent allosteric regulation and cryptic pockets of each mutant depend on its DYNASOME; and (iii) the recognition of the redox protein by hVKORC1 (INTERACTOME) depend on their DYNASOME. This multifaceted description of proteins produces "omics" data sets, crucial for understanding the physiological processes of proteins and the pathologies caused by alteration of the protein properties at various "omics" levels. Additionally, such characterisation opens novel perspectives for the development of "allo-network drugs" essential for the treatment of blood disorders.

A novel homozygous PIGO mutation associated with severe infantile epileptic encephalopathy, profound developmental delay and psychomotor retardation: structural and 3D modelling investigations and genotype-phenotype correlation.

The PIGO gene encodes the GPI-ethanolamine phosphate transferase 3, which is crucial for the final synthetic step of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchor serving to attach various proteins to their cell surface. These proteins are intrinsic for normal neuronal and embryonic development. In the current research work, a clinical investigation was conducted on a patient from a consanguineous family suffering from epileptic encephalopathy, characterized by severe seizures, developmental delay, hypotonia, ataxia and hyperphosphatasia. Molecular analysis was performed using Whole Exome Sequencing (WES). The molecular investigation revealed a novel homozygous variant c.1132C > T in the PIGO gene, in which a highly conserved Leucine was changed to a Phenylalanine (p.L378F). To investigate the impact of the non-synonymous mutation, a 3D structural model of the PIGO protein was generated using the AlphaFold protein structure database as a resource for template-based tertiary structure modeling. A structural analysis by applying some bioinformatic tools on both variants 378L and 378F models predicted the pathogenicity of the non-synonymous mutation and its potential functional and structural effects on PIGO protein. We also discussed the phenotypic and genotypic variability associated with the PIGO deficiency. To our best knowledge, this is the first report of a patient diagnosed with infantile epileptic encephalopathy showing a high elevation of serum alkaline phosphatase level. Our findings, therefore, widen the genotype and phenotype spectrum of GPI-anchor deficiencies and broaden the cohort of patients with PIGO associated epileptic encephalopathy with an elevated serum alkaline phosphatase level.

Structural and functional changes of nasal cavity and maxillary sinus in patients with skeletal class III malocclusion 1 year after bimaxillary surgery.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to analyse changes in the nasal cavity and maxillary sinus structure and function in patients with skeletal class III malocclusion 1 year after bimaxillary surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images of 20 patients (10 men and 10 women; mean age 24.3 ± 3.4 years) with skeletal class III malocclusion who underwent Le Fort I osteotomy and bilateral sagittal split osteotomy were obtained before and 1 year after the surgery. CBCT data were stored opened with element 3D (E3D) to establish a nasal airway model (the paranasal sinus includes only the maxillary sinus). Ansys (ANSYS) software is used for simulation and analysis. RESULTS: The maxillary sinus and nasal cavity volumes decreased significantly 1 year after the surgery. After surgery, the volume of nasal cavity decreased by 13.5%, and the average volume of maxillary sinus decreased by 7.8%. There was no significant difference in the degree of deviation of the septum and nasal cavity resistance, and air distribution in the maxillary sinus did not change. The nasal cavity wall shear stress change was similar to that before surgery. CONCLUSIONS: The maxillary sinus volume and nasal cavity volume of patients with skeletal class III malocclusion changed significantly after bimaxillary surgery, but there was no significant change in nasal ventilation function 1 year after surgery.

Application of external torque enhances the detection of subtle syndesmotic ankle instability in a weight-bearing CT.

PURPOSE: Acute syndesmotic ankle injuries continue to impose a diagnostic dilemma and it remains unclear whether weightbearing and/or external rotation should be added during the imaging process. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess if combined weightbearing and external rotation increases the diagnostic sensitivity of syndesmotic ankle instability using weightbearing CT (WBCT) imaging, compared to isolated weightbearing. METHODS: In this retrospective study, patients with an acute syndesmotic ankle injury were analysed using a WBCT (N = 21; Age = 31.6 ± 14.1 years old). Inclusion criteria were an MRI confirmed syndesmotic ligament injury imaged by a WBCT of the ankle during weightbearing and combined weightbearing-external rotation. Exclusion criteria consisted of fracture associated syndesmotic injuries. Three-dimensional (3D) models were generated from the CT slices. Tibiofibular displacement and talar rotation were quantified using automated 3D measurements (anterior tibiofibular distance (ATFD), Alpha angle, posterior Tibiofibular distance (PTFD) and Talar rotation (TR) angle in comparison to the contralateral non-injured ankle. RESULTS: The difference in neutral-stressed Alpha angle and ATFD showed a significant difference between patients with a syndesmotic ankle lesion and contralateral control (P = 0.046 and P = 0.039, respectively). The difference in neutral-stressed PTFD and TR angle did not show a significant difference between patients with a syndesmotic ankle lesion and healthy ankles (n.s.). CONCLUSION: Application of combined weightbearing-external rotation reveals an increased ATFD in patients with syndesmotic ligament injuries. This study provides the first insights based on 3D measurements to support the potential relevance of applying external rotation during WBCT imaging. In clinical practice, this could enhance the current diagnostic accuracy of subtle syndesmotic instability in a non-invasive manner. However, to what extent certain displacement patterns require operative treatment strategies has yet to be determined in future studies. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Rapid detection methods and modelling simulations provide new insights into cyanobacteria detection and bloom management in a tropical reservoir.

The increasing occurrence of cyanobacteria blooms is of global concern, and is often associated with environmental and socio-economic problems, such as degenerated ecosystems and aquaculture impairment. The diazotrophic cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii (R. raciborskii) grows rapidly in the tropics, and produces the toxin, cylindrospermopsin (CYN), which has harmful effects on aquatic organisms. Thus, to protect water quality and ecosystem, it is essential to have rapid and reliable methods for cyanobacteria and R. raciborskii detection and prediction so that early warning can be provided for management. Molecular assays, such as PCR, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), two-step PCR assays are accurate and widely used, but still require several hours from sample preparation to data analysis. In this study, insulated isothermal PCR (iiPCR) assays in conjunction with fast DNA extraction method, were developed and verified as a rapid detection assay in detecting cyanobacteria and R. raciborskii within 50 min, and also with high detection accuracy (98.8%) and the overall high agreement level (98.8%, k = 97.5%)) comparing to conventional qPCR assay. However, the limitation of the iiPCR assay is that it only generates qualitative results. Therefore, the quantified iiPCR assay, named as A-iiPCR, by coupling iiPCR device with fluorescence signal catching and interpretation instrument (Andor spectrometer with Solis spectroscopy software) was developed and verified with in situ environmental samples. The fluorescence intensity decreased accordingly with the drop of DNA concentration until reaching 1.32 ng/µL. Also, Delft 3D modelling was established to simulate R. raciborskii change in predicting spatial and temporal variabilities for reservoir management, as the simulated R. raciborskii concentration was the highest at sampling site 1, as well as temporally highest in April and October, posing as the most high-risk location and time periods for R. raciborskii bloom-forming requiring corresponding governance measures.

A systematic review of methodology for the creation of virtual 3D models for use in dental education and a narrative review.

OBJECTIVES: Virtual Reality (VR) technologies can be used as a content-delivery system for the purposes of both entertainment and education. Remote and digital education has become ever so important in a world where global disruptive events such as pandemics and natural disasters can define access to a face-to-face learning environment. An important aspect of VR technologies for dentistry is the creation of digital 3D models. The primary of this review was to answer the focused research question, "What software techniques are used in the creation of digital 3D models for use in dental education." METHODS: This study systematically evaluates current software and techniques used for creating digital 3D models in dental education using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRIMSA). RESULTS: The search strategies did not find any studies specific to the creation of dental-related 3D models. Therefore, this study for the first time provided an overview of common techniques of 3D model fabrication is discussed. Further some examples of methods of creating 3D models relevant to dentistry such armamentarium and anatomical oral structures have been discussed in considerable detail. CONCLUSION: The creation of 3D modelling is a rapidly evolving field with software updates and new programs being continually released. This work highlights fundamental lack of published work in the creation of 3D dental models for educational applications.

Filling the gap: a series of 3D-printed titanium truss cages for the management of large, lower limb bone defects in a developing country setting.

INTRODUCTION: Large segmental long bone defects are notoriously difficult to manage. Treatment is resource-intensive due to the complexity, cost, and specialized skills required. Truss designs are known for their triangular shapes organized in web configurations. This allows for maximal mechanical strength, the least mass, and a lattice that can be filled with bone graft. Using a truss cage combined with contemporary internal fixation provides immediate stability for bone ingrowth and long-term potential union. The implant is designed using virtual 3D modelling of the patient's bone defect based on a CT scan. The truss cage can be used in a staged procedure combined with Masquelet's induced membrane technique. This study aims to review the outcomes of patient-specific, locally designed 3D titanium truss cages packed with cancellous autograft in treating segmental, long bone defects in the lower limb in a developing country setting. METHODS: This retrospective series reviewed cases performed at various institutions between January 2019 and March 2022. Parameters assessed included patient demographics, size and location of the defect, time to clinical and radiological union and complications. RESULTS: Nine cases were included for review, with a mean age of 36 years (range 19-52). Defects ranged from 60 to 205 mm, and eight cases were staged procedures. Eight cases used intramedullary reamings as bone graft. Contemporary intramedullary nails were used for fixation in all cases. No peri- or post-operative complications occurred. All cases progressed to functional union. CONCLUSION: 3D-printed titanium truss cages combined with bone graft appear to be an effective treatment of large bone defects in the lower limb in a developing country setting in the short term. No complications were encountered, but longer follow-up is needed before definitive recommendations can be made. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV (retrospective case series).

The role of neural stem cells in regulating glial scar formation and repair.

Glial scars are a common pathological occurrence in a variety of central nervous system (CNS) diseases and injuries. They are caused after severe damage and consist of reactive glia that form a barrier around the damaged tissue that leads to a non-permissive microenvironment which prevents proper endogenous regeneration. While there are a number of therapies that are able to address some components of disease, there are none that provide regenerative properties. Within the past decade, neural stem cells (NSCs) have been heavily studied due to their potent anti-inflammatory and reparative capabilities in disease and injury. Exogenously applied NSCs have been found to aid in glial scar healing by reducing inflammation and providing cell replacement. However, endogenous NSCs have also been found to contribute to the reactive environment by different means. Further understanding how NSCs can be leveraged to aid in the resolution of the glial scar is imperative in the use of these cells as regenerative therapies. To do so, humanised 3D model systems have been developed to study the development and maintenance of the glial scar. Herein, we explore the current work on endogenous and exogenous NSCs in the glial scar as well as the novel 3D stem cell-based technologies being used to model this pathology in a dish.

A multi-method assessment of 3D printed micromorphological osteological features.

The evaluation of 3D printed osteological materials has highlighted the difficulties associated with accurately representing fine surface details on printed bones. Moreover, there is an increasing need for reconstructions to be demonstrably accurate and reliable for use in the criminal justice system. The aim of this study was to assess the surface quality of 3D prints (n = 9) that presented with micromorphological alterations from trauma, taphonomy and pathology processes. The archaeological bones were imaged using micro-CT scanning and 3D printed with selective laser sintering (SLS) printing. A multi-method experimental approach subsequently identified: (1) the 3D printed bones to be metrically accurate to within 1.0 mm; (2) good representation of micromorphological surface features overall, albeit with some loss of intricate details, depths, and fine textures that can be important for visual processing; (3) five of the nine 3D printed bones were quantitatively scored as accurate using the visual comparison method; and, (4) low mesh comparison distances (± 0.2 mm) between the original models and the digitised 3D print models. The findings offer empirical data that can be used to underpin 3D printed reconstructions of exhibits for use in courts of law. In addition, an adaptable pathway was presented that can be used to assess 3D print accuracy in future reconstructions.

Methods and Applications of 3D Patient-Specific Virtual Reconstructions in Surgery.

3D modelling has been highlighted as one of the key digital technologies likely to impact surgical practice in the next decade. 3D virtual models are reconstructed using traditional 2D imaging data through either direct volume or indirect surface rendering. One of the principal benefits of 3D visualisation in surgery relates to improved anatomical understanding-particularly in cases involving highly variable complex structures or where precision is required.Workflows begin with imaging segmentation which is a key step in 3D reconstruction and is defined as the process of identifying and delineating structures of interest. Fully automated segmentation will be essential if 3D visualisation is to be feasibly incorporated into routine clinical workflows; however, most algorithmic solutions remain incomplete. 3D models must undergo a range of processing steps prior to visualisation, which typically include smoothing, decimation and colourization. Models used for illustrative purposes may undergo more advanced processing such as UV unwrapping, retopology and PBR texture mapping.Clinical applications are wide ranging and vary significantly between specialities. Beyond pure anatomical visualisation, 3D modelling offers new methods of interacting with imaging data; enabling patient-specific simulations/rehearsal, Computer-Aided Design (CAD) of custom implants/cutting guides and serves as the substrate for augmented reality (AR) enhanced navigation.3D may enable faster, safer surgery with reduced errors and complications, ultimately resulting in improved patient outcomes. However, the relative effectiveness of 3D visualisation remains poorly understood. Future research is needed to not only define the ideal application, specific user and optimal interface/platform for interacting with models but also identify means by which we can systematically evaluate the efficacy of 3D modelling in surgery.

Using Confocal Microscopy to Generate an Accurate Vascular Model for Use in Patient Education Animation.

Hypertension is a condition requiring lifelong medication, where patients often feel well with or without treatment. Uncontrolled hypertension, however, can lead to permanent remodelling processes that occur to the vascular structure, which are seldom understood by the public. As a result, a significant burden is placed on healthcare systems globally as a result of the effects of hypertension and lack of adherence to prescribed treatment.Improving patient education through well-designed interactive applications and animation is a known strategy that can improve adherence rates to medication. In the context of hypertension, little attention has been given to helping patients understand the unseen damage that occurs to vessels exposed to high blood pressure. However, generating an accurate representation of a vessel and the changes that occur can be challenging. Using microscopy data is one way for creating an anatomically correct model, but this often needs careful consideration as data cannot be directly imported. Here we describe methods for creating an accurate 3D model of a small artery using confocal microscopy data. This model can then be animated to demonstrate the substructures and pathological changes that occur in hypertensive conditions to better inform patients about the dangers of uncontrolled blood pressure.

Microfluidic-Driven Biofabrication and the Engineering of Cancer-Like Microenvironments.

Despite considerable advances in cancer research and oncological treatments, the burden of the disease is still extremely high. While past research has been cancer cell centered, it is now clear that to understand tumors, the models that serve as a framework for research and therapeutic testing need to improve and integrate cancer microenvironment characteristics such as mechanics, architecture, and cell heterogeneity. Microfluidics is a powerful tool for biofabrication of cancer-relevant architectures given its capacity to manipulate cells and materials at very small dimensions and integrate varied living tissue characteristics. This chapter outlines the current microfluidic toolbox for fabricating living constructs, starting by explaining the varied configurations of 3D soft constructs microfluidics enables when used to process hydrogels. Then, we analyze the possibilities to control material flows and create space varying characteristics such as gradients or advanced 3D micro-architectures. Envisioning the trend to approach the complexity of tumor microenvironments also at higher dimensions, we discuss microfluidic-enabled 3D bioprinting and recent advances in that arena. Finally, we summarize the future possibilities for microfluidic biofabrication to tackle important challenges in cancer 3D modelling, including tools for the fast quantification of biological events toward data-driven and precision medicine approaches.

Creating Interactive Three-Dimensional Applications to Visualise Novel Stent Grafts That Aid in the Treatment of Aortic Aneurysms.

Three-Dimensional (3D) medical animations incorporated into applications are highly beneficial for clinical outreach and medical communication purposes that work towards educating the clinician and patient. Aortic aneurysms are a clinically important area to communicate with multiple audiences about various treatment options; both abdominal and thoracic aortic aneurysms were selected to create 3D animations and applications to educate medical professionals and patients regarding treatment options. Fenestrated endovascular aortic repair (FEVAR) and thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) are both tried and tested minimally invasive surgical methods for treating thoracic aortic aneurysms respectively. The Terumo Aortic Custom Relay Proximal Scalloped stent graft and Fenestrated Anaconda stent graft were both designed specifically for these procedures; however, it can be difficult to visually communicate to clinicians and patients in a straightforward way how these devices work. Therefore, we have developed two interactive applications that use 3D visualisation techniques to demonstrate how these aortic devices function and are implemented. The objective of these applications is to engage both clinicians and patients, therefore demonstrating that the addition of anatomically accurate 3D visualisations within an interactive interface would have a positive impact on public engagement while also ensuring that clinicians will have the best possible understanding of the potential uses of both devices, enabling them to exploit their key features to effectively broaden the treatable patient population.Detailed anatomical modelling and animation was used to generate realistic and accurate rendered videos showcasing both products. These videos were integrated into an interactive application within a modern, professional graphic interface that allowed the user to explore all aspects of the stent device. The resulting applications were broken down into three modules: deployment, clinical performance and features. Following application development, these applications were evaluated by professionals in the field. Overall, positive feedback was received regarding the user-friendly nature of the applications and highly effective animations to showcase the products. The clinical applications and feature modules were particularly successful, while the deployment modules had a neutral response. Biomedical applications such as these show great potential for communicating the key features of medical devices and promoting discussion between clinicians and patients; further testing would need to be conducted on a larger group of participants in order to validate the learning effectiveness of the applications.

Digital 2D, 2.5D and 3D Methods for Adding Photo-Realistic Textures to 3D Facial Depictions of People from the Past.

Facial reconstruction is a technique that can be used to estimate individual faces from human skulls. The presentation of 3D facial reconstructions as photo-realistic depictions of people from the past to public audiences varies widely due to differing methods, the artists' CGI skillset, and access to VFX software required to generate plausible faces.This chapter describes three digital methods for the addition of realistic textures to 3D facial reconstructions; a 2D photo-composite method, a 3D digital painting and rendering method, and a previously undescribed hybrid 2.5D method.These methods are compared and discussed in relation to artistic proficiency, morphological accuracy and practitioner bias.

Using Molecular Visualisation Techniques to Explain the Molecular Biology of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Mutations to a General Audience.

Since the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2019, the virus responsible for the outbreak-SARS-CoV-2-has continued to evolve. Mutations of the virus' spike protein, the main protein driving infectivity and transmissibility, are especially concerning as they may allow the virus to improve its infectivity, transmissibility, and ability to evade the immune system. Understanding how specific molecular changes can alter the behaviour of a virus is challenging for non-experts, but this information helps us to understand the pandemic we are living through and the public health measures and interventions needed to bring it under control. In response to communication challenges arising from the COVID-19 pandemic, we recently developed an online educational application to explain the molecular biology of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein mutations to the general public. We used visualisation techniques such as 3D modelling and animation, which have been shown to be highly effective teaching tools in molecular biology, allowing the viewer to better understand protein structure, function, and dynamics. We also included interactive elements for users to learn actively by engaging with the digital content, and consequently improve information retention.This chapter presents the methodological and technological framework which we used to create this resource, the 'SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Mutation Explorer' (SSPME). It explains how molecular visualisation and 3D modelling software were used to develop accurate models of relevant proteins; how 3D animation software was used to accurately visualise the dynamic molecular processes of SARS-CoV-2 infection, transmission, and antibody evasion; and how game development software was used to compile the 3D models and animations into a comprehensive, informative interactive application on SARS-CoV-2 spike protein mutations. This chapter indicates how cutting-edge visualisation techniques and technologies can be used to improve science communication about complex topics in molecular biology and infection biology to the general public, something that is critical to gaining control of the continuing COVID-19 pandemic.

Aortic valve leaflet and root dimensions in normal tricuspid aortic valves: A computed tomography study.

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this study was to use coronary computed tomography in patients with normal tricuspid aortic valves to perform detailed aortic root and aortic valve geometric analysis with a focus on the asymmetry of the three leaflets. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of anonymized coronary computed tomography angiograms was performed using dedicated software, where manual aortic root segmentation and marking of several points of interest were followed by automated measurements of aortic root and leaflets. Asymmetry of the three leaflets in individual patients was assessed by calculating absolute and relative differences between the largest and the smallest of the three leaflets. RESULTS: We analyzed 70 aortic valves, the mean patient age was 53 ± 11 years, and 50% (n = 35) of patients were female. All aortic valves were tricuspid, without calcifications and aortic roots were of normal dimensions. Some degree of asymmetry was present in all analyzed valves. Absolute and relative differences for free margin length were 3.2 ± 1.4 mm and 9.3 ± 3.8%, respectively. The largest relative difference was noted in the coaptation area (36.5 ± 16.5%) and the smallest in leaflet effective height (6.1 ± 4.8%). Using predefined cutoff criteria for absolute differences in leaflet dimensions, 86% of the valves were classified as asymmetric. CONCLUSIONS: Most normal tricuspid aortic valves show some degree of asymmetry. Equal free margin length of the three leaflets is not needed for normal tricuspid aortic valve function. Leaflet effective height showed the least amount of asymmetry confirming its importance in keeping the aortic valve competent.

3D Reality-Based Survey and Retopology for Structural Analysis of Cultural Heritage.

Cultural heritage's structural changes and damages can influence the mechanical behaviour of artefacts and buildings. The use of finite element methods (FEM) for mechanical analysis is largely used in modelling stress behaviour. The workflow involves the use of CAD 3D models and the use of non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) surfaces. For cultural heritage objects, altered by the time elapsed since their creation, the representation created with the CAD model may introduce an extreme level of approximation, leading to wrong simulation results. The focus of this work is to present an alternative method intending to generate the most accurate 3D representation of a real artefact from highly accurate 3D reality-based models, simplifying the original models to make them suitable for finite element analysis (FEA) software. The approach proposed, and tested on three different case studies, was based on the intelligent use of retopology procedures to create a simplified model to be converted to a mathematical one made by NURBS surfaces, which is also suitable for being processed by volumetric meshes typically embedded in standard FEM packages. This allowed us to obtain FEA results that were closer to the actual mechanical behaviour of the analysed heritage asset.