Role of Clay Substrate Molecular Interactions in Some Dairy Technology Applications.

The use of clay materials in dairy technology requires a multidisciplinary approach that allows correlating clay efficiency in the targeted application to its interactions with milk components. For profitability reasons, natural clays and clay minerals can be used as low-cost and harmless food-compatible materials for improving key processes such as fermentation and coagulation. Under chemical stability conditions, clay materials can act as adsorbents, since anionic clay minerals such as hydrotalcite already showed effectiveness in the continuous removal of lactic acid via in situ anion exchange during fermentation and ex situ regeneration by ozone. Raw and modified bentonites and smectites have also been used as adsorbents in aflatoxin retention and as acidic species in milk acidification and coagulation. Aflatoxins and organophilic milk components, particularly non-charged caseins around their isoelectric points, are expected to display high affinity towards high silica regions on the clay surface. Here, clay interactions with milk components are key factors that govern adsorption and surface physicochemical processes. Knowledge about these interactions and changes in clay behavior according to the pH and chemical composition of the liquid media and, more importantly, clay chemical stability is an essential requirement for understanding process improvements in dairy technology, both upstream and downstream of milk production. The present paper provides a comprehensive review with deep analysis and synthesis of the main findings of studies in this area. This may be greatly useful for mastering milk processing efficiency and envisaging new prospects in dairy technology.

Milk coagulation properties are moderately heritable in dairy cows: a meta-analysis using the random-effects model.

This study aimed to conduct a meta-analysis using the random-effects model to merge published genetic parameter estimates for milk coagulation properties (MCP: comprising rennet coagulation time (RCT), curd-firming time (k20), curd firmness 30 min after rennet addition (a30), titrable acidity (TA) and milk acidity or pH) in dairy cows. Overall, 80 heritability estimates and 157 genetic correlations from 23 papers published between 1999 and 2020 were used. The heritability estimates for RCT, a30, k20, TA, and pH were 0.273, 0.303, 0.278, 0.189 and 0.276, respectively. The genetic correlation estimates between RCT-a30, RCT-pH, and RCT-TA were 0.842, 0.549 and -0.565, respectively. Genetic correlation estimates between RCT and production traits were generally low and ranged from -0.142 (between RCT and casein content) to 0.094 (between RCT and somatic cell score). Moderate and significant genetic correlations were observed between a30-pH (-0.396) and a30-TA (0.662). Also, the genetic correlation estimates between a30 and production traits were low to moderate and varied from -0.165 (between a30 and milk yield) to 0.481 (between a30 and casein content). Genetic correlation estimates between pH and production traits were low and varied from -0.190 (between pH and milk protein percentage) to 0.254 (between pH and somatic cell score). The results of this meta-analysis indicated the existence of additive genetic variation for MCP that could be used in genetic selection programs for dairy cows. Because of the moderate heritability of MCP and small genetic correlations with production traits, it could be possible to improve MCP with negligible correlated effects on production traits.

Kinetics of pepsin-induced hydrolysis and the coagulation of milk proteins.

Hydrolysis-induced coagulation of casein micelles by pepsin occurs during the digestion of milk. In this study, the effect of pH (6.7-5.3) and pepsin concentration (0.110-2.75 U/mL) on the hydrolysis of κ-casein and the coagulation of the casein micelles in bovine skim milk was investigated at 37°C using reverse-phase HPLC, oscillatory rheology, and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The hydrolysis of κ-casein followed a combined kinetic model of first-order hydrolysis and putative pepsin denaturation. The hydrolysis rate increased with increasing pepsin concentration at a given pH, was pH dependent, and reached a maximum at pH ∼6.0. Both the increase in pepsin concentration and decrease in pH resulted in a shorter coagulation time. The extent of κ-casein hydrolysis required for coagulation was independent of the pepsin concentration at a given pH and, because of the lower electrostatic repulsion between para-casein micelles at lower pH, decreased markedly from ∼73% to ∼33% when pH decreased from 6.3 to 5.3. In addition, the rheological properties and the microstructures of the coagulum were markedly affected by the pH and the pepsin concentration. The knowledge obtained from this study provides further understanding on the mechanism of milk coagulation, occurring at the initial stage of transiting into gastric conditions with high pH and low pepsin concentration.

Phenotypic and genetic characterization of the occurrence of noncoagulating milk in dairy sheep.

Milk coagulation ability is of central importance for the sheep dairy industry because almost all sheep milk is destined for cheese processing. The occurrence of milk with impaired coagulation properties is an obstacle to cheese processing and, in turn, to the profitability of the dairy companies. In this work, we investigated the causes of noncoagulation of sheep milk; specifically, we studied the effect of milk physicochemical properties on milk coagulation status [coagulating and noncoagulating (NC) milk samples, which do or do not coagulate within 30 min, respectively], and whether mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIR) could be used to assess variability in coagulation status. We also investigated the genetic background of milk coagulation ability. Individual milk samples were collected from 996 Sarda ewes farmed in 47 flocks located in Sardinia (Italy). Considered traits were daily milk yield, milk composition traits, and milk coagulation properties (rennet coagulation time, curd firming time, and curd firmness), and MIR spectra were acquired. About 9% of samples did not coagulate within 30 min. A logistic regression approach was used to test the effect of milk-related traits on milk coagulation status. A principal component (PC) analysis was carried out on the milk MIR spectra, and PC scores were then used as covariates in a logistic regression model to assess their relationship with milk coagulation status. Results of the present work demonstrated that the probability of having NC samples increases as milk contents of proteins and chlorides and somatic cell score increase. The analysis of PC extracted from milk spectra that influenced coagulation status highlighted key regions associated with lactose and protein concentrations, and others not associated with routinely collected milk composition traits. These results suggest that the occurrence of NC is mostly related to damage of the epithelium secretory mammary cells, which occurs with the advancement of a lactation or due to unhealthy mammary gland status. Genetic analysis of milk coagulation status and of the extracted PC confirmed the genetic background of the milk coagulability of sheep milk.

The ß-casein (CSN2) A2 allelic variant alters milk protein profile and slightly worsens coagulation properties in Holstein cows.

Milk proteins genetic variants have long attracted interest as they are associated with important issues relating to milk composition and technological properties. An important debate has recently opened at an international level on the role of ß-casein (ß-CN) A1 and A2 polymorphisms, toward human health. For this reason, a lot of efforts has been put into the promotion of A2 milk by companies producing and selling A1-free milk, leading the farmers and breeders to switch toward A2 milk production without paying attention on the potential effect of the processability of milk into cheese. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effects of ß-CN, specifically the A1 and A2 allelic variants, on the detailed milk protein profile and cheese-making traits in individual milk samples of 1,133 Holstein Friesian cows. The protein fractions were measured with reversed-phase (RP)-HPLC (expressed in g/L and % N), and the cheese-making traits, namely milk coagulation properties, cheese yield, and curd nutrient recoveries assessed at the individual level, with a nano-scale cheese-making procedure. The ß-CN (CSN2), κ-CN (CSN3), and ß-lactoglobulin (LGB) genetic variants were first identified through RP-HPLC and then confirmed through genotyping. Estimates of the effects of protein genotypes were obtained using a mixed inheritance model that considered, besides the standard nuisance variables (i.e., days in milk, parity, and herd-date), the milk protein genes located on chromosome 6 (CSN2, CSN3) and on chromosome 11 (LGB), and the polygenic background of the animals. Milk protein genes (CSN2, CSN3, and LGB) explained an important part of the additive genetic variance in the traits evaluated. The ß-CN A1A1 was associated with a significantly lower production of whey proteins, particularly of ß-lactoglobulin (-8.2 and -6.8% for g/L and % N, respectively) and α-lactalbumin (-4.7 and -4.4% for g/L and % N, respectively), and a higher production of ß-CN (6.8 and 6.1% for g/L and % N, respectively) with respect to the A2A2 genotype. Regarding milk cheese-making ability, the A2A2 genotype showed the worst performance compared with the other genotypes, particularly with respect to the BA1, with a higher rennet coagulation time (7.1 and 28.6% compared with A1A1 and BA1, respectively) and a lower curd firmness at 30 min. Changes in milk protein composition through an increase in the frequency of the A2 allele in the production process could lead to a worsening of the coagulation and curd firming traits.

Composition, coagulation properties, and predicted cheesemaking traits of bulk goat milk from different farming systems, breeds, and stages of production.

At the global level, the quantity of goat milk produced and its gross production value have increased considerably over the last 2 decades. Although many scientific papers on this topic have been published, few studies have been carried out on bulk goat milk samples. The aim of the present study was to investigate in the field the effects of farming system, breed type, individual flock, and stage of production on the composition, coagulation properties (MCP), curd firming over time parameters (CFt), predicted cheese yield (CY%), and nutrient recovery traits (REC) of 432 bulk milk samples from 161 commercial goat farms in Sardinia, Italy. We found that the variance due to individual flock was of the same order as the residual variance for almost all composition and cheesemaking traits. With regard to the fixed effects, the effect of farming system on bulk milk variability was not highly significant for the majority of traits (it was lower than individual flock), whereas the effects of breed type and stage of production were much higher. More specifically, the intensive farms produced milk with the best concentrations of almost all constituents, whereas extensive farms exhibited faster rennet coagulation times, a slower rate of curd firming, lower potential curd firmness, and lower percentages of fat and energy recoveries in the fresh curd. Farms rearing the local breed, Sarda, alone or together with the Maltese breed, produced milk with the best concentrations of fat and protein, superior curd firmness, and better predicted percentage of fresh curd (CYCURD) and recovery traits. The results show the potential of both types of breed, either for their quantitative (specialized breeds) or their qualitative (local breeds) attributes. As expected, the concentrations of fat, protein fractions, and lactose were influenced by the stage of production, with samples collected in the early stage of production (in February and March) having a greater quantity of the main constituents. Somatic cells reached the highest levels in the late stage of production, which corresponds to the goats' advanced stage of lactation (June-July), although no differences were present in the logarithmic bacterial counts between the early and late stages. Regarding cheesemaking potential, bulk milk samples of the late stage were characterized by delayed rennet coagulation and curd firming times, the lowest values of curd firmness, and a general reduction in CY%, and REC traits. In conclusion, we highlight several issues regarding the effects of the most important sources of variation on bulk goat milk, and point to some critical factors relevant for improving dairy goat farming and milk production.

Composition and aptitude for cheese-making of milk from cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, dromedary camels, and donkeys.

Bovines produce about 83% of the milk and dairy products consumed by humans worldwide, the rest represented by bubaline, caprine, ovine, camelid, and equine species, which are particularly important in areas of extensive pastoralism. Although milk is increasingly used for cheese production, the cheese-making efficiency of milk from the different species is not well known. This study compares the cheese-making ability of milk sampled from lactating females of the 6 dairy species in terms of milk composition, coagulation properties (using lactodynamography), curd-firming modeling, nutrients recovered in the curd, and cheese yield (through laboratory model-cheese production). Equine (donkey) milk had the lowest fat and protein content and did not coagulate after rennet addition. Buffalo and ewe milk yielded more fresh cheese (25.5 and 22.9%, respectively) than cow, goat, and dromedary milk (15.4, 11.9, and 13.8%, respectively). This was due to the greater fat and protein contents of the former species with respect to the latter, but also to the greater recovery of fat in the curd of bubaline (88.2%) than in the curd of camelid milk (55.0%) and consequent differences in the recoveries of milk total solids and energy in the curd; protein recovery, however, was much more similar across species (from 74.7% in dromedaries to 83.7% in bovine milk). Compared with bovine milk, the milk from the other Artiodactyla species coagulated more rapidly, reached curd firmness more quickly (especially ovine milk), had a more pronounced syneresis (especially caprine milk), had a greater potential asymptotical curd firmness (except dromedary and goat milk), and reached earlier maximum curd firmness (especially caprine and ovine milk). The maximum measured curd firmness was greater for bubaline and ovine milk, intermediate for bovine and caprine milk, and lower for camelid milk. The milk of all ruminant species can be used to make cheese, but, to improve efficiency, cheese-making procedures need to be optimized to take into account the large differences in their coagulation, curd-firming, and syneresis properties.

Fruit Extract Derived from a Mixture of Noni, Pineapple and Mango Capable of Coagulating Milk and Producing Curd with Antidiabetic Activities.

Research background: Morinda citrifolia L. (noni), Ananas comosus L. cv. Sarawak (pineapple) and Mangifera indica L. cv. Apple (mango) represent fruits capable of coagulating milk and forming a curd. Plant-derived milk coagulants have antidiabetic phytochemicals that enrich the curd. Hence this work evaluates the dual benefits of the fruits in coagulating milk and the antidiabetic activities found in the obtained curd. Experimental approach: The three fruits were mixed to form a supercoagulant (a milk coagulant mixture of the extracts at a ratio of 1:1:1), and the milk coagulation time was measured. The milk was coagulated by the supercoagulant, and thus fortified curd was tested for its ability to inhibit α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities. Then, the fortified curd was fed daily to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and their biochemical markers such as blood glucose level, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, etc. as well as histopathology of their liver and kidney tissues were compared with the untreated diabetic rats and normal rats. Results and conclusion: The supercoagulant had a milk coagulation time of (28±3) s at a 50 mg/mL concentration. Its fortified curd inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities, with IC50 values of (4.04±0.03) and (3.42±0.02) mg/mL, respectively. The average mass of the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats fed daily with curd formed by the supercoagulant was (201±10) g on day 20 compared to diabetic control rats with (149±16) g. The blood glucose concentration for rats treated with the supercoagulant after fasting was (15±1) mmol/L compared to the diabetic control rats ((26±2) mmol/L). Blood tests on the treated rats showed aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, γ-glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase (liver function tests) amounts of (214±78), (91±13), 3 and (510±138) U/L, respectively, while the total protein and renal function tests showed the concentrations of albumin, globulin, urea and creatinine of (37±2) g/L, (30±2) g/L, (11±1) mmol/L and (42±3) µmol/L, respectively. These concentrations were found to be similar to those of the normal rats on day 20. Furthermore, a histopathological study performed on the liver and kidney of the rats found no apparent damage. Novelty and scientific contribution: This supercoagulant derived from a mixture of fruits is able to coagulate milk rapidly, and its curd is fortified with safe antidiabetic agents. The supercoagulant is potentially useful in producing functional dairy food to prevent diabetes or as a supplement for diabetics to control their blood sugar. Such products are capable of replacing dairy products derived from animal enzymes and provide consumers with additional functional dairy products.

Estimation of genetic parameters for cheese-making traits in Spanish Churra sheep.

The global production of sheep milk is growing, and the main industrial use of sheep milk is cheese making. The Spanish Churra sheep breed is one of the most important native dairy breeds in Spain. The present study aimed to estimate genetic parameters for a wide range of traits influencing the cheese-making ability of Churra sheep milk. Using a total of 1,049 Churra ewes, we studied the following cheese-making traits: 4 traits related to milk coagulation properties (rennet coagulation time, curd-firming time, and curd firmness at 30 and 60 min after addition of rennet), 2 traits related to cheese yield (individual laboratory cheese yield and individual laboratory dried curd yield), and 3 traits measuring curd firmness over time (maximum curd firmness, time to attain maximum curd firmness, and syneresis). In addition, a list of milk traits, including the native pH of the milk and several milk production and composition traits (milk yield; the fat, protein, and dried extract percentages; and the somatic cell count), were also analyzed for the studied animals. After discarding the noncoagulating samples (only 3.7%), data of 1,010 ewes were analyzed with multiple-trait animal models by using the restricted maximum likelihood method to estimate (co)variance components, heritabilities, and genetic correlations. In general, the heritability estimates were low to moderate, ranging from 0.08 (for the individual laboratory dried curd yield trait) to 0.42 (for the fat percentage trait). High genetic correlations were found within pairs of related traits (i.e., 0.93 between fat and dried extract percentages, -0.93 between the log of the curd-firming time and curd firmness at 30 min, 0.70 between individual laboratory cheese yield and individual laboratory dried curd yield, and -0.94 between time to attain maximum curd firmness and syneresis). Considering all the information provided here, we suggest that in addition to the current consideration of the protein percentage trait for improving cheese yield traits, the inclusion of the pH of milk as a measured trait in the Churra dairy breeding program would represent an efficient strategy for improving the cheese-making ability of milk from this breed.

Composition and properties of bovine milk: A study from dairy farms in northern Sweden; Part I. Effect of dairy farming system.

This study was part of a larger project that aimed to understand the causes for increasing variation in cheese ripening in a cheese-producing region in northern Sweden. The influence of different on-farm factors on raw milk composition and properties was investigated and is described in this paper, whereas the monthly variation in the milk quality traits during 1 yr is described in our companion paper. The dairy farming systems on a total of 42 dairy farms were characterized through a questionnaire and farm visits. Milk from farm tanks was sampled monthly over 1 yr and analyzed for quality attributes important for cheese making. On applying principal component analyses to evaluate the variation in on-farm factors, different types of farms were distinguished. Farms with loose housing and automatic milking system (AMS) or milking parlor had a higher number of lactating cows, and predominantly Swedish Holstein (SH) breed. Farms associated with tiestalls had a lower number of lactating cows and breeds other than SH. Applying principal component analyses to study the variation in composition and properties of tank milk samples from farms revealed a tendency for the formation of 2 clusters: milk from farms with AMS or a milking parlor, and milk from farms with tiestall milking. The interaction between the milking system, housing system, and breed probably contributed to this grouping. Other factors that were used in the characterization of the farming systems only showed a minor influence on raw milk quality. Despite the interaction, milk from tiestall farms with various cow breeds had higher concentrations (g/100 g of milk) of fat (4.74) and protein (3.63), and lower lactose concentrations (4.67) than milk from farms with predominantly SH cows and AMS (4.32, 3.47, and 4.74 g/100 g of milk, respectively) or a milking parlor (4.47, 3.54, and 4.79 g/100 g of milk, respectively). Higher somatic cell count (195 × 103/mL) and lower free fatty acid concentration (0.75 mmol/100 g of fat) were observed in milk from farms with AMS than in milk from tiestall systems (150 × 103/mL and 0.83 mmol/100 g of fat, respectively). Type of farm influenced milk gel strength, with milk from farms with predominantly SH cows showing the lowest gel strength (65.0 Pa), but not a longer rennet coagulation time. Effects of dairy farming system (e.g., dominant breed, milking system, housing, and herd size) on milk quality attributes indicate a need for further studies to evaluate the in-depth effects of farm-related factors on milk quality attributes.

Effects of full-time v. part-time grazing on seasonal changes in milk coagulation properties and fatty acid composition.

For this research communication our objective was to investigate to what extent milk coagulation properties and milk fatty acid (FA) composition were affected by different feeding systems, season and their interaction. Eighteen cows in total were subjected to one of three different feeding system treatments: full-time grazing or part-time grazing combined with indoor feeding of fresh grass with low or high concentrate supplementation. Milk was sampled in spring, summer and autumn. Milk coagulation time was 15.0, 19.0 and 17.7 min, coagulation dynamics 1.67, 3.41 and 1.79 min, and curd firmness 52.7, 32.4 and 47.0 mm in spring, summer and autumn, respectively. Thus, milk coagulation properties of the milk were lower during summer. There were strong seasonal effects on milk FA proportions, but there were not always changes with progressing season, or changes were different with respect to the impact of the feeding systems (system × season interaction). The milk fat was favourably rich in oleic acid, conjugated linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid and had a low n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio in all systems. Factors like seasonal variations in grass composition and the energy balance of the cows were considered relevant for the milk FA composition. Overall, seasonal variations in milk quality were less pronounced with part-time grazing with fresh grass indoors as compared to full-time grazing without concentrate.

Using multivariate analysis to explore the relationships between color, composition, hygienic quality, and coagulation of milk from Manchega sheep.

This study explores the relationships between composition, hygienic quality, and color values of milk to evaluate whether colorimetry could be used as a valid predictor of the quality of raw milk and its coagulation. For this purpose, we performed analyses in 1,200 individual samples of Manchega sheep milk from 4 flocks from the region of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. Based on the measured variables, we determined the differences and similarities between coagulating and noncoagulating samples using discriminant analysis techniques. The variables with a higher discriminant ability were lactose content, somatic cell score, pH, and the color values lightness (L*) and red/green value (a*). The model based on color values showed a predictive ability similar to that found in the model based on milk composition and hygienic quality. Canonical correlation analysis allowed us to explore the relationships between both sets of variables. Canonical correlations for the first and second pair of canonical values were 0.794 and 0.438, respectively. Both values were significant and represented 92.82% of the observed variability. The correlation structure showed that color values had a strong correlation with fat and protein content and with total solids, and they had a weak correlation with lactose content and somatic cell score. The 2 first combinations of standardized canonical variability could be considered a predictable measure of the composition and, to a lesser extent, the hygiene of milk. Measurement of color values could be a rapid and effective means of supplementing standard analyses when determining the coagulation ability of Manchega sheep milk.

Consequences of walking or transport by truck on milk yield and quality, as well as blood metabolites, in Holstein, Montbéliarde, and Valdostana dairy cows.

In the mountains, the traditional practice of transhumance is common in dairy production systems to make use of the high-altitude summer pastures. Although the effects of highland grazing have been intensively studied with respect to cow performance and milk and cheese quality, the actual moving of the animals to the highlands and the consequences of this stressor for performance and milk quality in the days immediately following transhumance has not been investigated in detail. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of a 6-km walk (lasting 1.5 h) to those of a truck transport of 10.5 km (lasting 1 h), simulating cow movement in transhumance systems, as well as a control treatment in which cows were not moved. The experiment included 12 late-lactating Valdostana Red Pied, 12 Montbéliarde, and 12 Holstein cows (i.e., breeds contrasting in genetic merit for milk production). Each cow was subjected to each treatment in a 3-wk Latin square design. Milk yield was measured, and milk and blood samples were taken around the transhumance simulation events. Cows of the 3 breeds responded similarly to both movement treatments. Walking decreased milk yield by 1 kg/milking, but truck transport did not affect milk yield. Both treatments led to an increase in plasma nonesterified fatty acids and milk somatic cell count compared with controls, and truck transport increased milk fat content. Milk coagulation properties were better for Valdostana Red Pied and Montbéliarde cows than for Holstein cows but were not affected by walking or truck transport. Further studies aiming to compare the 3 breeds should include a wider range of response variables over a longer term, including reproduction performance and repeated transhumance.

Short communication: Dietary protein restriction and conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in dairy cows affect milk composition, the cheese-making process, and cheese quality.

We used 20 mid-lactating Holstein cows, housed in 4 pens according to a Latin square design, to evaluate the effects of dietary protein restriction (crude protein: 12.3 vs. 15.0% dry matter) and conjugated linoleic acid supplementation (CLA: 6.34 g/d of C18:2cis-9,trans-11 and 6.14 g/d of C18:2trans-10,cis-12) on milk composition, coagulation, curd firming and syneresis modeling, and cheese yield and quality (96 small cheeses). Dietary crude protein restriction, suggested as a way to reduce N excretion in farming, caused a reduction in milk protein content (-4%,), milk casein (-3.8%), lactose (-1%), cheese soluble protein (-16.8%), and the cheese maturation index (-15%), and a correlated increase in cheese fat content (+7.5%) and the fat to protein ratio (+18%). A modest reduction (-0.9%) in milk fat recovery in the curd did not affect cheese yield. The addition of CLA to the cows' diet, suggested as a way to improve N use efficiency and the nutritional value of dairy products, caused substantial alterations to the milk composition, cheese-making process, and cheese quality. The CLA reduced the fat (-12.3%), protein (-2%), casein (-2.2%), lactose (-1.0), and total solids (-4%) contents of milk, tended to delay coagulation, and weakened curd firming. The CLA reduced the fresh cheese yield (-7.5%) and cheese solids (-8.2%) because of the lower nutrient content of the milk, but also because of a lower recovery of milk protein in the curd (-0.9%) and lower total solids (-4.5%). It also reduced the fat content in the ripened cheese (-11.8%), as well as the fat to protein ratio (-19.4%) as a result of having increased the protein content (+9.3%). Last, it increased the lightness of the paste of the ripened cheeses (+3.3%), and especially the shear force (+16.3%). Dietary crude protein restriction, and CLA addition in particular, substantially altered the milk composition, cheese-making process, and cheese quality, and therefore needs to be carefully evaluated. Further studies are required to shed light on the causes of these modifications.

Genetic parameters for noncoagulating milk, milk coagulation properties, and detailed milk composition in Swedish Red Dairy Cattle.

The rennet-induced coagulation ability of milk is important in cheese production. For Swedish Red Dairy Cattle (RDC), this ability is reduced because of a high prevalence of noncoagulating (NC) milk. In this study, we simultaneously combined genetic parameters for NC milk, milk coagulation properties, milk composition, physical traits, and milk protein composition. Our aim was to estimate heritability and genetic and phenotypic correlations for NC milk and 24 traits (milk coagulation properties, milk composition, physical traits, and milk protein composition). Phenotypes and ∼7,000 SNP genotypes were available for all 600 Swedish RDC. The genotypes were imputed from ∼7,000 SNP to 50,000 SNP. Variance components and genetic parameters were estimated with an animal model. In Swedish RDC, a moderate heritability estimate of 0.28 was found for NC milk. For the other 24 traits, heritability estimates ranged from 0.12 to 0.77 (standard errors from 0.08 to 0.18). A total of 300 phenotypic and genetic correlations were estimated. For phenotypic and genetic correlations, 172 and 95 were significant, respectively. In general, most traits showing significant genetic correlations also showed significant phenotypic correlations. In this study, phenotypic and genetic correlations with NC milk suggest that many correlations between traits exist, making it difficult to predict the real consequences on the composition of milk, if selective breeding is applied on NC milk. We speculate that some of these consequences may lead to changes in the composition of milk, most likely affecting its physical and organoleptic properties. However, our results suggest that κ-casein could be used as an indicator trait to predict the occurrence of NC milk at the herd level.

Effects of milk proteins and posttranslational modifications on noncoagulating milk from Swedish Red dairy cattle.

Milk that does not coagulate after rennet addition, also called noncoagulating (NC) milk, is unwanted in cheese production due to prolonged processing time. Amounts of whey and casein proteins, genetic variants, as well as posttranslational modifications (PTM) of proteins are all contributing factors in rennet-induced coagulation of milk. In this study, we conducted a wide-ranging investigation of milk proteins in milk samples from 616 Swedish Red dairy cattle using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Relative concentration of proteins, genetic variants, and PTM were compared between NC milk and coagulating milk. The PTM investigated were phosphorylation of caseins and glycosylation of κ-casein. Several genetic variants and PTM were found, including rare phosphorylation variants of the αS-caseins. Genetic variants were found to effect the expressed amount of different proteins. Further, the effect of protein amounts and PTM on a binary NC milk trait was modeled using a generalized linear model. The model showed that NC milk significantly correlated with higher relative concentrations of α-lactalbumin and ß-casein and lower relative concentrations of ß-lactoglobulin and κ-casein. Regarding PTM of caseins, an effect on NC milk from a lower relative concentration of αS1-casein with 8 phosphate groups were found, even though an effect from total relative concentration of αS1-casein was not found. This study has provided insights into protein variants and PTM important for NC milk to improve this undesirable property.

Association between the GHR, GHRHR and IGF1 gene polymorphisms and milk coagulation properties in Sarda sheep.

We investigated whether variation of the sheep Growth Hormone Receptor (GHR), Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Receptor (GHRHR) and Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF1) genes were associated with milk coagulation properties (MCP) in sheep. The GHR, GHRHR and IGF1 genes are part of the GH system, which is known to modulate metabolism, growth and reproduction as well as mammogenesis and galactopoiesis in dairy species. A total of 380 dairy Sarda sheep were genotyped for 36 SNPs mapping to these three genes. Traditional MCP were measured as rennet coagulation time (RCT), curd-firming time (k20) and curd firmness at 30 m (a30). Modeling of curd firming over time (CFt) was based on a 60 m lactodynamographic test, generating a total of 240 records of curd firmness (mm) for each milk sample. The model parameters obtained included: the rennet coagulation time as a result of modeling all data available (RCTeq, min); the asymptotic potential value of curd firmness (CFP, mm) at an infinite time; the CF instant rate constant (kCF, %/min); the syneresis instant rate constant (kSR, %/min); the maximum value of CF (CFmax, mm) and the time at achievement of CFmax (tmax, min). Statistical analysis revealed that variation of the GHR gene was significantly associated with RCT, kSR and CFP (P < 0.05). No other significant associations were detected. These findings may be useful for the dairy industry, as well as for selection programs.

Multivariate analysis of the milk coagulation process in ovine breeds from Spain.

In Spain, ewe milk is mainly used for cheesemaking, and farming systems have traditionally been based on the use of autochthonous breeds. However, in recent years, the progressive introduction of highly productive foreign breeds in Spanish farms has led to an increasing interest in the characterization of dairy sheep breeds to evaluate whether genetic selection schemes should focus on productivity or milk technological aptitude. The purpose of this work was to explore milk composition and coagulation to classify 4 of the main dairy sheep breeds used in Spain. This study included 832 individual ewe milk samples from the breeds Manchega, Assaf, Merino de Grazalema, and Merino de Los Pedroches. Samples were analyzed for native pH, composition (fat, protein, lactose, and total solids), coagulation properties, and individual laboratory curd yield. An indicator of coagulation efficiency was also determined. Canonical discriminant analysis was performed to establish differences and similarities among breeds based on the measured variables. In addition, cluster analysis was performed to study and quantify the concrete relationships among the discriminated groups. Discriminant analysis proved to be a powerful tool to accurately draw distinctions between breeds. In all cases, discrimination among breeds was evident and the 4 breeds could be easily differentiated. Cluster analysis showed greater similarity between Merino de Grazalema and Assaf compared with the other breeds, and F-statistics indicated a higher discriminating ability for the variables related to milk composition. However, Merino de Grazalema and Manchega were difficult to separate according to milk composition, but the coagulation process differenced them clearly. Coagulation also evidenced similarities between Manchega and Merino de Los Pedroches, although the latter was revealed to be the most different breed of all 4, which could lay the ground for its differentiation as an independent breed in the Official Catalogue of Spanish Livestock Breeds.

Modeling of coagulation, curd firming, and syneresis of goat milk from 6 breeds.

Traditional milk coagulation properties are used to predict the suitability of milk for cheese-making. In bovine and ovine species, the introduction of the concept of curd firming over time, continuously recorded by a lactodynamograph during prolonged tests, provides additional information about milk coagulation, curd-firming, and syneresis processes. The aims of present study were (1) to test the adaptability of a 4-parameter curd-firming model in the assessment of goat milk (also comparing published data of other species); (2) to describe variability of coagulation, curd firming, and syneresis processes among individual goat milk samples; (3) to quantify the effects of farm and animal factors (breed, parity, and stage of lactation); and (4) to compare 6 goat breeds for their model parameters. Milk samples from 1,272 goats reared in 35 farms were collected. Goats were of 6 breeds: Saanen and Camosciata delle Alpi for the Alpine type; and Murciano-Granadina, Maltese, Sarda, and Sarda Primitiva for the Mediterranean type. During a lactodynamographic analysis (60 min), 240 measures of curd firmness (mm) were recorded for each milk sample. The modeling of curd firming allowed us to achieve the rennet coagulation time estimated on the basis of all the data points (min); the curd firming and the curd syneresis instant rate constants; the asymptotical potential value of curd firming; the actual maximum curd firmness; and the time at which the curd firming maximum level is attained. Modeling parameter data were analyzed using a linear mixed model. Comparison with other dairy species showed several differences: goat milk coagulated later than sheep but earlier than bovine, and curd firming and curd syneresis instant rate constants were greater in small ruminants. Modeling parameters of goat milk were mostly affected by the farm effect (37% of the total variance, on average) compared with the results found for bovine and ovine samples, and this was probably attributable to the marked differences among goat farming systems. Small differences were demonstrated between Alpine and Mediterranean breeds, but the time of maximum curd firmness was lower in Murciano-Granadina compared with Maltese, Sarda, and Sarda Primitiva. Sarda and Sarda Primitiva were very similar and exhibited the most favorable coagulation properties of milk. For almost all the model parameters, the direct effect of breed was increased after correction for milk yield and composition. In conclusion, this approach allowed us to fully depict the effects of the different factors on coagulation of goat milk, and clarified the different renneting pattern among goat breeds, and with other species. Results could be used for the valorization of goat dairy products, also when these are linked to particular local breeds, and to stimulate further studies about relationships between coagulation and cheese-making traits.

A method for the inline measurement of milk gel firmness using an optical sensor.

At present, selection of cutting time during cheesemaking is made based on subjective methods, which has effects on product homogeneity and has prevented complete automation of cheesemaking. In this work, a new method for inline monitoring of curd firmness is presented. The method consisted of developing a model that correlates the backscatter ratio of near infrared light during milk coagulation with the rheological storage modulus. The model was developed through a factorial design with 2 factors: protein concentration (3.4 and 5.1%) and coagulation temperature (30 and 40°C). Each treatment was replicated 3 times; the model was calibrated with the first replicate and validated using the remaining 2 replicates. The coagulation process was simultaneously monitored using an optical sensor and small-amplitude oscillatory rheology. The model was calibrated and successfully validated at the different protein concentrations and coagulation temperatures studied, predicting the evolution of storage modulus during milk coagulation with coefficient of determination values >0.998 and standard error of prediction values <3.4 Pa. The results demonstrated that the proposed method allows inline monitoring of curd firming in cheesemaking and cutting the curd at a proper firmness to each type of cheese.