High fat intake sustains sorbitol intolerance after antibiotic-mediated Clostridia depletion from the gut microbiota.

Carbohydrate intolerance, commonly linked to the consumption of lactose, fructose, or sorbitol, affects up to 30% of the population in high-income countries. Although sorbitol intolerance is attributed to malabsorption, the underlying mechanism remains unresolved. Here, we show that a history of antibiotic exposure combined with high fat intake triggered long-lasting sorbitol intolerance in mice by reducing Clostridia abundance, which impaired microbial sorbitol catabolism. The restoration of sorbitol catabolism by inoculation with probiotic Escherichia coli protected mice against sorbitol intolerance but did not restore Clostridia abundance. Inoculation with the butyrate producer Anaerostipes caccae restored a normal Clostridia abundance, which protected mice against sorbitol-induced diarrhea even when the probiotic was cleared. Butyrate restored Clostridia abundance by stimulating epithelial peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) signaling to restore epithelial hypoxia in the colon. Collectively, these mechanistic insights identify microbial sorbitol catabolism as a potential target for approaches for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of sorbitol intolerance.

Glucoselysine, a unique advanced glycation end-product of the polyol pathway and its association with vascular complications in type 2 diabetes.

Glucoselysine (GL) is an unique advanced glycation end-product derived from fructose. The main source of fructose in vivo is the polyol pathway, and an increase in its activity leads to diabetic complications. Here, we aimed to demonstrate that GL can serve as an indicator of the polyol pathway activity. Additionally, we propose a novel approach for detecting GL in peripheral blood samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and evaluate its clinical usefulness. We successfully circumvent interference from fructoselysine, which shares the same molecular weight as GL, by performing ultrafiltration and hydrolysis without reduction, successfully generating adequate peaks for quantification in serum. Furthermore, using immortalized aldose reductase KO mouse Schwann cells, we demonstrate that GL reflects the downstream activity of the polyol pathway and that GL produced intracellularly is released into the extracellular space. Clinical studies reveal that GL levels in patients with type 2 diabetes are significantly higher than those in healthy participants, while Nδ-(5-hydro-5-methyl-4-imidazolon-2-yl)ornithine (MG-H1) levels are significantly lower. Both GL and MG-H1 show higher values among patients with vascular complications; however, GL varies more markedly than MG-H1 as well as hemoglobin A1c, fasting plasma glucose, and estimated glomerular filtration rate. Furthermore, GL remains consistently stable under various existing drug treatments for type 2 diabetes, whereas MG-H1 is impacted. To the best of our knowledge, we provide important insights in predicting diabetic complications caused by enhanced polyol pathway activity via assessment of GL levels in peripheral blood samples from patients.

Xylitol is prothrombotic and associated with cardiovascular risk.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The pathways and metabolites that contribute to residual cardiovascular disease risks are unclear. Low-calorie sweeteners are widely used sugar substitutes in processed foods with presumed health benefits. Many low-calorie sweeteners are sugar alcohols that also are produced endogenously, albeit at levels over 1000-fold lower than observed following consumption as a sugar substitute. METHODS: Untargeted metabolomics studies were performed on overnight fasting plasma samples in a discovery cohort (n = 1157) of sequential stable subjects undergoing elective diagnostic cardiac evaluations; subsequent stable isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses were performed on an independent, non-overlapping validation cohort (n = 2149). Complementary isolated human platelet, platelet-rich plasma, whole blood, and animal model studies examined the effect of xylitol on platelet responsiveness and thrombus formation in vivo. Finally, an intervention study was performed to assess the effects of xylitol consumption on platelet function in healthy volunteers (n = 10). RESULTS: In initial untargeted metabolomics studies (discovery cohort), circulating levels of a polyol tentatively assigned as xylitol were associated with incident (3-year) major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE) risk. Subsequent stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS analyses (validation cohort) specific for xylitol (and not its structural isomers) confirmed its association with incident MACE risk [third vs. first tertile adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval), 1.57 (1.12-2.21), P < .01]. Complementary mechanistic studies showed xylitol-enhanced multiple indices of platelet reactivity and in vivo thrombosis formation at levels observed in fasting plasma. In interventional studies, consumption of a xylitol-sweetened drink markedly raised plasma levels and enhanced multiple functional measures of platelet responsiveness in all subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Xylitol is associated with incident MACE risk. Moreover, xylitol both enhanced platelet reactivity and thrombosis potential in vivo. Further studies examining the cardiovascular safety of xylitol are warranted.

Structure-Function Relationship of Iron Oxide Nanoflowers: Optimal Sizes for Magnetic Hyperthermia Depending on Alternating Magnetic Field Conditions.

Iron oxide nanoflowers (IONFs) that display singular magnetic properties can be synthesized through a polyol route first introduced almost 2 decades ago by Caruntu et al, presenting a multi-core morphology in which several grains (around 10 nm) are attached together and sintered. These outstanding properties are of great interest for magnetic field hyperthermia, which is considered as a promising therapy against cancer. Although of significantly smaller diameter, the specific adsorption rate (SAR) of IONFs reach values as large as for "magnetosomes" that are natural magnetic nanoparticles typically ~40 nm found in certain bacteria, which can be grown artificially but with much lower yield compared to chemical synthesis such as the polyol route. This work aims at better understanding the structure-property relationships, linking the internal IONF nanostructure as observed by HR-TEM to their magnetic properties. A library of mono- and multicore IONFs is presented, with diameters ranging from 11 to 30 nm in a narrow size distribution. More particularly, by relating their structural features to their magnetic properties investigated by utilizing AC magnetometry over a wide range of alternating magnetic field conditions, we showed that the SAR values of all synthesized batches vary with overall diameter and number of constituting cores.

Investigating the optical and electrical performance of rod coated silver nanowire-based transparent conducting films.

Silver nanowires (Ag NWs) are highly promising building blocks for developing transparent conducting films (TCFs) due to their high electrical conductivity and good optical transparency. The large-scale production of Ag NW-based high-quality TCFs using low-cost processing methods can replace the traditional oxide based TCFs. Therefore, developing a reliable technique for large-scale fabrication of Ag NW-based TCFs is vital. This work involves the synthesis of Ag NWs, the fabrication of large-area Ag NW-based TCFs using a simple rod coating process, its optimization, and the performance analysis of the fabricated TCFs, including their demonstration as transparent heaters. The polyol synthesis method produces Ag NWs of lengths ranging from 25-110µm and diameters from 80-180 nm. The effect of Ag NW length, the number of coating passes, and the volume of the NW dispersion used per coating pass on the electrical and optical properties of the TCFs are studied by quantifying sheet resistance(Rs)and transmittance (T) of the film. The performance of the fabricated film is evaluated by estimating the figure of merit (FoM) in both percolative and bulk regimes. The TCF made with NWs of length 25.7µm and diameter 85.1 nm had the largest value of bulk FoM (101.3), percolative FoM (43.9), and, conductivity exponent (0.6). This elucidated the superior performance of the fabricated TCFs over those fabricated by other techniques. The critical thickness of the film (tmin), at the crossover between the percolation and bulk, scales with the shortest dimension of the NW, namely its diameter. The percolative FoM showed an increase, with a decrease in both sheet resistance and diameter of the NWs, with lowern. The fabricated TCF is tested as a transparent heater and the demonstration proves that rod coated Ag NW-based TCFs can be used for transparent electrode applications.

Antimicrobial Activity of ZnS and ZnO-TOP Nanoparticles Againts Pathogenic Bacteria.

This study aims to synthesize ZnS nanoparticles (NPs) and investigate their biocidal effects, along with those of ZnO-Trioctylphosphine (ZnO-TOP) NPs, on various pathogenic microbes. The NPs were synthesized via the polyol method using the forced hydrolysis of zinc acetate. They were characterized by XRD and TEM. The average sizes of ZnS and ZnO-TOP are 3.63 nm and 16.28 nm, respectively. The antimicrobial activities were assessed using agar-well diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and biofilm inhibition. The results showed that ZnS and ZnO-TOP NPs have potent antimicrobial activity against all tested pathogen microbes. A zone of maximum inhibition (ZMI) of 20±0.54 and 22±0.26 was observed in the case of ZnS for Acinetobacter baumannii and Candida albicans, respectively. For ZnO-TOP, a ZMI of 20±0.15 and 20±0.19 is obtained for Pseudomonas. aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and A. baumannii, respectively. Percentages of biofilm inhibition at 128 µg/ml were notably high for Enterococcus faecalis (96.83% with ZnO-TOP and 91.17% with ZnS) and Staphylococcus aureus (87.27% with ZnO-TOP and 76.37% with ZnS). The results suggest that ZnS and ZnO-TOP nanoparticles have promising potential as effective antimicrobial agents, especially against biofilm-forming pathogens, indicating their potential for future use in treating microbial infections.

Safety Assessment of Polyol Phosphates as Used in Cosmetics.

The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety (Panel) reviewed the safety of 10 polyol phosphates. Some of the possible functions in cosmetics that are reported for this ingredient group are chelating agents, oral care agents, and skin conditioning agents. The Panel reviewed relevant data relating to the safety of these ingredients under the intended conditions of use in cosmetic formulations, and concluded that Sodium Phytate, Phytic Acid, Phytin, and Trisodium Inositol Triphosphate are safe in cosmetics in the present practices of use and concentration described in the safety assessment. The Panel also concluded that the data are insufficient to determine the safety of the following 6 ingredients as used in cosmetics: Disodium Glucose Phosphate, Manganese Fructose Diphosphate, Sodium Mannose Phosphate, Trisodium Fructose Diphosphate, Xylityl Phosphate, and Zinc Fructose Diphosphate.

The Synergistic Effects of Polyol Pathway-Induced Oxidative and Osmotic Stress in the Aetiology of Diabetic Cataracts.

Cataracts are the world's leading cause of blindness, and diabetes is the second leading risk factor for cataracts after old age. Despite this, no preventative treatment exists for cataracts. The altered metabolism of excess glucose during hyperglycaemia is known to be the underlying cause of diabetic cataractogenesis, resulting in localised disruptions to fibre cell morphology and cell swelling in the outer cortex of the lens. In rat models of diabetic cataracts, this damage has been shown to result from osmotic stress and oxidative stress due to the accumulation of intracellular sorbitol, the depletion of NADPH which is used to regenerate glutathione, and the generation of fructose metabolites via the polyol pathway. However, differences in lens physiology and the metabolism of glucose in the lenses of different species have prevented the translation of successful treatments in animal models into effective treatments in humans. Here, we review the stresses that arise from hyperglycaemic glucose metabolism and link these to the regionally distinct metabolic and physiological adaptations in the lens that are vulnerable to these stressors, highlighting the evidence that chronic oxidative stress together with osmotic stress underlies the aetiology of human diabetic cortical cataracts. With this information, we also highlight fundamental gaps in the knowledge that could help to inform new avenues of research if effective anti-diabetic cataract therapies are to be developed in the future.

The transport of mannitol in Sinorhizobium meliloti is carried out by a broad-substrate polyol transporter SmoEFGK and is affected by the ability to transport and metabolize fructose.

The smo locus (sorbitol mannitol oxidation) is found on the chromosome of S. meliloti's tripartite genome. Mutations at the smo locus reduce or abolish the ability of the bacterium to grow on several carbon sources, including sorbitol, mannitol, galactitol, d-arabitol and maltitol. The contribution of the smo locus to the metabolism of these compounds has not been previously investigated. Genetic complementation of mutant strains revealed that smoS is responsible for growth on sorbitol and galactitol, while mtlK restores growth on mannitol and d-arabitol. Dehydrogenase assays demonstrate that SmoS and MtlK are NAD+-dependent dehydrogenases catalysing the oxidation of their specific substrates. Transport experiments using a radiolabeled substrate indicate that sorbitol, mannitol and d-arabitol are primarily transported into the cell by the ABC transporter encoded by smoEFGK. Additionally, it was found that a mutation in either frcK, which is found in an operon that encodes the fructose ABC transporter, or a mutation in frk, which encodes fructose kinase, leads to the induction of mannitol transport.

Fructose: A New Variable to Consider in SIADH and the Hyponatremia Associated With Long-Distance Running?

Fructose has recently been proposed to stimulate vasopressin secretion in humans. Fructose-induced vasopressin secretion is not only postulated to result from ingestion of fructose-containing drinks but may also occur from endogenous fructose production via activation of the polyol pathway. This raises the question of whether fructose might be involved in some cases of vasopressin-induced hyponatremia, especially in situations where the cause is not fully known such as in the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of diuretic hormone (SIADH) and exercise-associated hyponatremia, which has been observed in marathon runners. Here we discuss the new science of fructose and vasopressin, and how it may play a role in some of these conditions, as well as in the complications associated with rapid treatment (such as the osmotic demyelination syndrome). Studies to test the role of fructose could provide new pathophysiologic insights as well as novel potential treatment strategies for these common conditions.

How to build a lichen: from metabolite release to symbiotic interplay.

Exposing their vegetative bodies to the light, lichens are outstanding amongst other fungal symbioses. Not requiring a pre-established host, 'lichenized fungi' build an entirely new structure together with microbial photosynthetic partners that neither can form alone. The signals involved in the transition of a fungus and a compatible photosynthetic partner from a free-living to a symbiotic state culminating in thallus formation, termed 'lichenization', and in the maintenance of the symbiosis, are poorly understood. Here, we synthesise the puzzle pieces of the scarce knowledge available into an updated concept of signalling involved in lichenization, comprising five main stages: (1) the 'pre-contact stage', (2) the 'contact stage', (3) 'envelopment' of algal cells by the fungus, (4) their 'incorporation' into a pre-thallus and (5) 'differentiation' into a complex thallus. Considering the involvement of extracellularly released metabolites in each phase, we propose that compounds such as fungal lectins and algal cyclic peptides elicit early contact between the symbionts-to-be, whereas phytohormone signalling, antioxidant protection and carbon exchange through sugars and sugar alcohols are of continued importance throughout all stages. In the fully formed lichen thallus, secondary lichen metabolites and mineral nutrition are suggested to stabilize the functionalities of the thallus, including the associated microbiota.

Pre-hyperglycemia immune cell trafficking underlies subclinical diabetic cataractogenesis.

BACKGROUND: This work elucidates the first cellular and molecular causes of cataractogenesis. Current paradigm presupposes elevated blood glucose as a prerequisite in diabetic cataractogenesis. Novel evidence in our model of diabetic cataract challenges this notion and introduces immune cell migration to the lens and epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) of lens epithelial cells (LECs) as underlying causes. METHODS: Paucity of suitable animal models has hampered mechanistic studies of diabetic cataract, as most studies were traditionally carried out in acutely induced hyperglycemic animals. We introduced diabetic cataract in the Nile grass rat (NGR) that spontaneously develops type 2 diabetes (T2D) and showed its closeness to the human condition. Specialized stereo microscopy with dual bright-field illumination revealed novel hyperreflective dot-like microlesions in the inner cortical regions of the lens. To study immune cell migration to the lens, we developed a unique in situ microscopy technique of the inner eye globe in combination with immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Contrary to the existing paradigm, in about half of the animals, the newly introduced hyper reflective dot-like microlesions preceded hyperglycemia. Even though the animals were normoglycemic, we found significant changes in their oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), indicative of the prediabetic stage. The microlesions were accompanied with significant immune cell migration from the ciliary bodies to the lens, as revealed in our novel in situ microscopy technique. Immune cells adhered to the lens surface, some traversed the lens capsule, and colocalized with apoptotic nuclei of the lens epithelial cells (LECs). Extracellular degradations, amorphous material accumulations, and changes in E-cadherin expressions showed epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) in LECs. Subsequently, lens fiber disintegration and cataract progression extended into cortical, posterior, and anterior subcapsular cataracts. CONCLUSIONS: Our results establish a novel role for immune cells in LEC transformation and death. The fact that cataract formation precedes hyperglycemia challenges the prevailing paradigm that glucose initiates or is necessary for initiation of the pathogenesis. Novel evidence shows that molecular and cellular complications of diabetes start during the prediabetic state. These results have foreseeable ramifications for early diagnosis, prevention and development of new treatment strategies in patients with diabetes.

Optimizing silver nanowire dimensions by the modification of polyol synthesis for the fabrication of transparent conducting films.

Transparent conducting films (TCFs) made by the assembly/deposition of silver nanowires (Ag NWs) are widely used to manufacture flexible electronics such as touch screens, heaters, displays, and organic light-emitting diodes. Controlling the dimensions (length and diameter) of the nanowires is key in obtaining TCFs with the desired optoelectronic properties, namely sheet resistance and optical transparency. This work describes a combined experimental and theoretical investigation on the optimization of the NW dimensions to fabricate high-quality TCFs. Ag NWs of different dimensions are synthesized by the modified polyol method and the average diameter and length of the wires are tailored over a wide range, 35-150 nm and 12-130µm respectively, by controlling the synthesis parameters such as reaction conditions, stabilizing agents, and growth promoters. The synthesized NWs are spin coated on glass substrates to form TCFs. Comparing the films with different lengths, but identical diameters, enabled the quantification of the effect of length on the optoelectronic properties of the TCFs. Similarly, the effect of NW diameter is also studied. A non-uniformity factor is defined to evaluate the uniformity of the TCF and the transmittance of the NW network is shown to be inversely proportional to its area coverage. The sheet conductance versus the normalized number density is plotted for the different concentrations of NWs to extract a conductivity exponent that agrees well with the theoretical predictions. For thin film networks, the relation between the transmittance and sheet resistance provides the percolative figure of merit (FoM) as a fitting parameter. A large FoM is desirable for a good-performing TCF and the synthesis conditions to achieve this are optimized.

Synthesis and Properties of Polyol Copolymer with Alternating Methacrylate-Vinyl Ether Backbone.

Radical polymerization of a tailored diphenylsilane-bridged bi-functional monomer consisting of methacrylate and vinyl ether moieties is conducted in diluted monomer concentration, in which both two moieties are consumed at almost the same rate despite their huge difference in monomer reactivity ratio. The vinyl ether content in the backbone is quantified as 45% by 1 H NMR after removal of the silane bridge. Since vinyl ether alone cannot be polymerized in such radical polymerization, it should be incorporated in an alternating fashion with methacrylate into the copolymer main chain. The cleavage of silane bridge also yields a series of polyol materials composed of ethylene glycol monovinyl ether (EGVE) and hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and the EGVE content in the backbone can be regulated from 45% to 18% by increasing the bi-functional monomer concentration. Interestingly, although containing more than 50% HEMA units, the alternating copolymer exhibits new properties totally different from poly(HEMA), but more similar to poly(EGVE), e.g., good water solubility and a markedly low glass transition temperature (Tg ) of -31 °C, which is attributed to the major HEMA-EGVE repeating unit that replaced HEMA-HEMA consecutive segments so that the properties of poly(HEMA) such as 95 °C Tg are completely altered.

Extracellular oil production by Rhodotorula paludigena BS15 for biorefinery without complex downstream processes.

To realize biomass refinery without complex downstream processes, we extensively screened for microbial strains that efficiently produce extracellular oil from sugars. Rhodotorula paludigena (formerly Rhodosporidium paludigenum) BS15 was found to efficiently produce polyol esters of fatty acids (PEFAs), which mainly comprised of 3-acetoxypalmitic acid and partially acetylated mannitol/arabinitol. To evaluate the performance of this strain, fed-batch fermentation was demonstrated on a flask scale, and 110 g/L PEFA and 103 g/L dry cells were produced in 12 days. To the best of our knowledge, the strain BS15 exhibited the highest PEFA titer (g/L) ever to be reported so far. Because the PEFA precipitated at the bottom of the culture broth, it could be easily recovered by simply discarding the upper phase. Various carbon sources can be utilized for cell growth and/or PEFA production, which signifies the potential for converting diverse biomass sources. Two different types of next-generation sequencers, Illumina HiSeq and Oxford Nanopore PromethION, were used to analyze the whole-genome sequence of the strain BS15. The integrative data analysis generated a high-quality and reliable reference genome for PEFA-producing R. paludigena. The 22.5-M base genome sequence and the estimated genes were registered in Genbank (accession numbers BQKY01000001-BQKY01000019). KEY POINTS: • R. paludigena BS15 was isolated after an extensive screening of extracellular oil producers from natural sources. • Fed-batch fermentation of R. paludigena BS15 yielded 110 g/L of PEFA, which is the highest titer ever reported to date. • Combined analysis using Illumina and Oxford Nanopore sequencers produced the near-complete genome sequence.

A new series of hydrazones as small-molecule aldose reductase inhibitors.

In the search for small-molecule aldose reductase (AR) inhibitors, new tetrazole-hydrazone hybrids (1-15) were designed. An efficient procedure was employed for the synthesis of compounds 1-15. All hydrazones were subjected to an in vitro assay to assess their AR inhibitory profiles. Compounds 1-15 caused AR inhibition with Ki values ranging between 0.177 and 6.322 µM and IC50 values ranging between 0.210 and 0.676 µM. 2-[(1-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-1H-tetrazol-5-yl)thio]-N'-(4-fluorobenzylidene)acetohydrazide (4) was the most potent inhibitor of AR in this series. Compound 4 markedly inhibited AR (IC50 = 0.297 µM) in a competitive manner (Ki = 0.177 µM) compared to epalrestat (Ki = 0.857 µM, IC50 = 0.267 µM). Based on the in vitro data obtained by applying the MTT test, compound 4 showed no cytotoxic activity toward normal (NIH/3T3) cells at the tested concentrations, indicating its safety as an AR inhibitor. Compound 4 exhibited proper interactions with crucial amino acid residues within the active site of AR. In silico QikProp data of all hydrazones (1-15) were also determined to assess their pharmacokinetic profiles. Taken together, compound 4 stands out as a promising inhibitor of AR for further in vivo studies.

Room-Temperature Nitric Oxide Gas Sensors Based on NiO/SnO2 Heterostructures.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a very well-known indoor pollutant, and high concentrations of it in the atmosphere lead to acid rain. Thus, there is great demand for NO sensors that have the ability to work at room temperature. In this work, NiO/SnO2 heterostructures have been prepared via the polyol process and were tested against different concentrations of NO gas at room temperature. The structural and morphological characteristics of the heterostructures were examined using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, respectively, while the ratio of NiO to SnO2 was determined through the use of energy-dispersive spectrometry. The effects of both pH and thermal annealing on the morphological, structural and gas-sensing properties of the heterostructure were investigated. It was found that the morphology of the heterostructures consisted of rod-like particles with different sizes, depending on the temperature of thermal annealing. Moreover, NiO/SnO2 heterostructures synthesized with pH = 8 and annealed at 900 °C showed a response of 1.8% towards 2.5 ppm NO at room temperature. The effects of humidity as well as of stability on the gas sensing performance were also investigated.

Insight into the Molecular Mechanism of Diabetic Kidney Disease and the Role of Metformin in Its Pathogenesis.

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the leading causes of death among patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Despite the growing knowledge about the pathogenesis of DKD, we still do not have effective direct pharmacotherapy. Accurate blood sugar control is essential in slowing down DKD. It seems that metformin has a positive impact on kidneys and this effect is not only mediated by its hypoglycemic action, but also by direct molecular regulation of pathways involved in DKD. The molecular mechanism of DKD is complex and we can distinguish polyol, hexosamine, PKC, and AGE pathways which play key roles in the development and progression of this disease. Each of these pathways is overactivated in a hyperglycemic environment and it seems that most of them may be regulated by metformin. In this article, we summarize the knowledge about DKD pathogenesis and the potential mechanism of the nephroprotective effect of metformin. Additionally, we describe the impact of metformin on glomerular endothelial cells and podocytes, which are harmed in DKD.

Overexpression of LjPLT3 Enhances Salt Tolerance in Lotus japonicus.

Intracellular polyols are used as osmoprotectants by many plants under environmental stress. However, few studies have shown the role of polyol transporters in the tolerance of plants to abiotic stresses. Here, we describe the expression characteristics and potential functions of Lotus japonicus polyol transporter LjPLT3 under salt stress. Using LjPLT3 promoter-reporter gene plants showed that LjPLT3 was expressed in the vascular tissue of L. japonicus leaf, stem, root, and nodule. The expression was also induced by NaCl treatment. Overexpression of LjPLT3 in L. japonicus modified the growth rate and saline tolerance of the transgenic plants. The OELjPLT3 seedlings displayed reduced plant height under both nitrogen-sufficient and symbiotic nitrogen fixation conditions when 4 weeks old. The nodule number of OELjPLT3 plants was reduced by 6.7-27.4% when 4 weeks old. After exposure to a NaCl treatment in Petri dishes for 10 days, OELjPLT3 seedlings had a higher chlorophyll concentration, fresh weight, and survival rate than those in the wild type. For symbiotic nitrogen fixation conditions, the decrease in nitrogenase activity of OELjPLT3 plants was slower than that of the wild type after salt treatment. Compared to the wild type, both the accumulation of small organic molecules and the activity of antioxidant enzymes were higher under salt stress. Considering the concentration of lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) in transgenic lines, we speculate that overexpression of LjPLT3 in L. japonicus might improve the ROS scavenging system to alleviate the oxidative damage caused by salt stress, thereby increasing plant salinity tolerance. Our results will direct the breeding of forage legumes in saline land and also provide an opportunity for the improvement of poor and saline soils.

Advanced Glycation End-Products and Diabetic Neuropathy of the Retina.

Diabetic retinopathy is a tissue-specific neurovascular impairment of the retina in patients with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Several pathological factors are involved in the progressive impairment of the interdependence between cells that consist of the neurovascular units (NVUs). The advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are one of the major pathological factors that cause the impairments of neurovascular coupling in diabetic retinopathy. Although the exact mechanisms for the toxicities of the AGEs in diabetic retinopathy have not been definitively determined, the AGE-receptor of the AGE (RAGE) axis, production of reactive oxygen species, inflammatory reactions, and the activation of the cell death pathways are associated with the impairment of the NVUs in diabetic retinopathy. More specifically, neuronal cell death is an irreversible change that is directly associated with vision reduction in diabetic patients. Thus, neuroprotective therapies must be established for diabetic retinopathy. The AGEs are one of the therapeutic targets to examine to ameliorate the pathological changes in the NVUs in diabetic retinopathy. This review focuses on the basic and pathological findings of AGE-induced neurovascular abnormalities and the potential therapeutic approaches, including the use of anti-glycated drugs to protect the AGE-induced impairments of the NVUs in diabetic retinopathy.