Bilateral palpebral reduction and concurrent mycoplasmosis in a wild Agassiz's desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii).

A wild Agassiz's desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii, with bilateral eyelid reduction and plaques of tissue covering the superior surface of both corneas was examined in the field and subsequently submitted to the University of Florida for diagnostics. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), from a swab of both corneas, was positive for Mycoplasma agassizii. Two months later, the tortoise was euthanatized and necropsied. There was increased bulbar exposure associated with dermal excoriation of periocular scales in both superior and inferior palpebra resulting in an increased palpebral fissure opening. Concurrently, there was bilateral conjunctivitis of the nictitating membranes and squamous metaplasia of the bulbar conjunctiva. Using PCR, Mycoplasma testudineum, another pathogen of tortoises, was identified in both nasal cavities, and the upper respiratory tract histopathological findings were consistent with those described for M. testudineum in Agassiz's desert tortoises. Although eye disease has been reported in desert and gopher (Gopherus polyphemus) tortoises with mycoplasmosis, widespread loss of palpebral tissue, conjunctivitis of the nictitans, and squamous metaplasia of the bulbar conjunctiva have not been reported in tortoises.

Cytological and microbiological evaluation of conjunctiva in camels with and without conjunctivitis.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the cytological analysis of conjunctiva from normal camels and camels with bacterial conjunctivitis. ANIMALS STUDIED: This study was conducted on 7 normal camels and 15 camels affected with conjunctivitis. The affected camels had a history of conjunctivitis with signs including chemosis, blepharospasm, frequent blinking, and mild-to-moderate serous, mucoid, or purulent ocular discharge. PROCEDURES: Bacterial swabs were collected from the inferior conjunctival sac of the affected eye without topical anesthetics. Conjunctival smears were obtained from the conjunctival surface for cytological analysis. RESULTS: The cellular analysis of ocular smears revealed a higher percentage of basal cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages in camels with conjunctivitis compared with normal camels. In contrast to this, smears from normal camels showed an increased percentage of superficial epithelial cells compared with affected camels. The microbiological assessment of conjunctival swabs collected from affected animals identified a bacterial growth of Staphylococcus aureus., Bacillus sp., Streptococcus sp., Enterococcus faecium., Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., Coryne pseudotuberculosis., Saprophytica, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulagaris, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. CONCLUSIONS: It was observed that bacterial conjunctivitis in camels was associated with increased percentages of basal epithelial cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages compared with normal camels, while normal camels showed an increased percentage of superficial epithelial cells compared with affected camels.

A case of lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis in a horse.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a case of lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis in a horse. ANIMAL STUDIED: A client-owned 12-year-old Standardbred gelding presenting with chronic conjunctivitis and palpebral masses. METHODS: Complete ophthalmic examination, surgical excision, histopathology, and bacterial culture of biopsy samples were performed. RESULTS: Upper and lower eyelids of both eyes were affected, with multiple yellow-to-white nodules on the palpebral conjunctiva, adjacent to the eyelid margin. Nodule removal was achieved via partial tarsal plate excision. Histopathological examination revealed granulomatous inflammation and large droplets of presumed free lipid in the conjunctival lamina propria. The animal was diagnosed with lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis. No postoperative ocular discomfort was observed for months; however, 3 years later, new conjunctival nodules were noticed, requiring a second surgical procedure on three of the eyelids. Transient entropion in the left lower eyelid was observed 2 months after the second surgery, and no recurrence of conjunctival nodules was observed after 18 months of follow-up. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first report of lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis in horses.

Ocular lesions in cats diagnosed with systemic sporotrichosis.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the most common ocular lesions and demonstrate the frequency of ophthalmic involvement in a group of cats with systemic sporotrichosis. ANIMALS STUDIED: Two hundred seventy-four cats diagnosed with systemic sporotrichosis. The inclusion criteria included previous positive cytopathological examination, histopathological examination, or fungal culture. PROCEDURES: In a prospective case-control study, 274 cats diagnosed with systemic sporotrichosis underwent ophthalmic evaluation and received treatment for systemic sporotrichosis. Of these animals, 63 had ocular abnormalities which were recorded, and conjunctivitis was scored from 0 to 5. Diagnostic techniques utilized included fungal culture, as well as cytopathological (10 eyes; 10 cats), and histopathological examination of the palpebral conjunctiva and eyes (2 eyes). RESULTS: Cytopathological and histopathological examination of the conjunctiva, as well as fungal culture, proved to be important tests for the detection of Sporothrix sp. Five cats without the evidence of ophthalmic abnormalities also had a positive fungal culture. The identified ocular lesions in animals with systemic sporotrichosis included increased serous discharge (79 eyes; 53 cats), blepharoconjunctivitis (33 eyes; 25 cats), conjunctivitis (39 eyes, 20 cats), blepharitis (9 eyes; 8 cats), uveitis (5 eyes; 3 cats), and Florida keratopathy-like lesions (2 eyes; 1 cat). CONCLUSION: Sporotrichosis should be considered a differential diagnosis for conjunctivitis and blepharoconjunctivitis, especially in endemic areas. Fungal culture and cytopathology of ocular discharge and histopathological examinations of the conjunctiva are important for the diagnosis of ophthalmic sporotrichosis, although not all cats underwent laboratory testing in this study. Ocular discharge could be a source of contagion transmission.

Outbreak of follicular conjunctivitis associated with the diagnosis of anaplasmosis in a sheep herd.

OBJECTIVE: To report an outbreak of follicular conjunctivitis in a group of sheep diagnosed with Anaplasma spp., without any other co-infection. ANIMALS STUDIED: In all, 18 animals from a sheep head, males and females, from eight months to four years of age, were assessed for follicular conjunctivitis. PROCEDURES: The procedures performed included general physical and ophthalmological examinations; PCR evaluation for infectious agents; analysis of hematological parameters, microbiological tests of ocular swabs, coproparasitological examination, histopathological examination of conjunctival biopsy. RESULTS: All 18 animals had uni- or bilateral follicular conjunctivitis, and one animal also had unilateral uveitis. The results of microbiological analyzes were negative for Moraxella spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Pseudomonas spp., and PCR analysis results were negative for Chlamydia spp., Mycoplasma spp., and Toxoplasma gondii. Anemia, thrombocytopenia, lymphocytosis, and an inclusion body in some erythrocytes, compatible with Anaplasma and PCR analysis for Anaplasma spp. were positive. CONCLUSION: Anaplasmosis may be associated with follicular conjunctivitis in sheep and should be included in the differential diagnosis list and investigated in cases of conjunctivitis in herds.

Ocular abnormalities in the Icelandic horse with a focus on equine recurrent uveitis: 112 Icelandic horses living in Denmark and 26 Icelandic horses living in the United States.

PURPOSE: To describe the most common ocular abnormalities in the Icelandic horse with focus on equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) and association between ocular abnormalities and summer eczema and coat colors. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study. A complete physical and ophthalmic examination as well as measurement of serum titers for Leptospira serovariants was performed on Icelandic horses from Denmark (DK) and the United States (USA). RESULTS: One hundred and twelve Icelandic horses living in DK and 26 Icelandic horses living in the United States were included in this study (total of 138 horses, 274 eyes). The three most common ocular abnormalities were follicular conjunctivitis (55.8%, 153/274 eyes), cataracts (27.4%, 75/274 eyes), and multifocal chorioretinopathy ("bullet holes"; 19%, 52/274 eyes). The prevalence for ERU among Icelandic horses aged "eight years and older" was 8% (6/75 horses). The "insidious ERU" type was found in 83% of the ERU cohort (5/6 horses), while "classic ERU" was found in 17% (1/6 horses). A correlation between ERU and cataracts was found in the population (p < .01). Leptospiral serology results were not associated with ERU in either DK or US-Icelandic horses (p = 1.00, p = 1.00, respectively). ERU was not associated with summer eczema (p = .49), and no coat colors were associated with the ocular abnormalities found in the Icelandic horse (all p-values > .05). CONCLUSION: Follicular conjunctivitis, cataracts, and multifocal chorioretinopathy were the three most common ocular abnormalities findings. Icelandic horses who were 8 years or older had an 8% prevalence for ERU. Summer eczema and coat color were not associated with evidence of ERU or other ocular abnormalities.

A large deletion in the Plasminogen gene is associated with ligneous membranitis in a Maltese dog.

Ligneous membranitis/conjunctivitis (LM, OMIM 217090) is a hereditary disorder caused by a congenital plasminogen (PLG) deficiency. In veterinary medicine, LM (OMIA 002020-9615) has rarely been reported in Golden Retrievers, Yorkshire Terriers, Doberman Pinschers and Scottish Terriers. In the latter breed, an A>T variation in an intron donor site of the PLG gene (PLG, c.1256+2T>A) has been found to be the sole causative molecular defect reported to date in dogs. Owing to the absence of plasmin enzymatic clearance which in turn depends on the lack of its proenzyme plasminogen, fibrin deposits tend to accumulate in viscous membranes on the eyes, triggering and sustaining an intense inflammatory response. A case of LM was diagnosed in a 7-month-old male Maltese dog. The dog was examined for severe recurrent conjunctivitis. A diagnosis of ligneous conjunctivitis was made by an ophthalmologist after a thorough eye examination and was confirmed by a complete lack of plasma activity of plasminogen. The main local signs were redness of the conjunctiva with persistent membranes having ligneous (wood-like) membranes on the eyes. The disease was associated with a complex rearrangement involving the plasminogen gene loci, causing the complete deletion of exon 1. This study provides a spontaneous animal model for LM associated with complete plasminogen deficiency and provides a method for detecting affected or carrier dogs.

Impact of acute conjunctivitis on ocular surface homeostasis in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of acute conjunctivitis on tear film characteristics and corneal sensitivity in dogs. ANIMALS STUDIED: Eight female spayed Beagle dogs (1.5-2 years old, 7.5-10 kg). PROCEDURES: On two consecutive days, one randomly selected eye in each dog received 1 or 375 mg/mL histamine solution to induce mild or severe conjunctivitis, while the contralateral eye served as control. Diagnostic tests were performed in the following order: fluorescein instillation and repeated tear collection over 20 minutes (to determine tear volume [TV] and turnover rate [TTR] by fluorophotometry), Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1), tear ferning, corneal esthesiometry, and tear film breakup time (TFBUT). RESULTS: Results are presented as median values for severe conjunctivitis, mild conjunctivitis, and control eyes. Eyes with severe conjunctivitis had significantly higher STT-1 (24, 19.5, 17.5 mm/min; P = .002) and significantly lower TFBUT (10.5, 13.5, 15.5 s; P = .002), but no changes were noted in corneal tactile sensation (2, 2.5, 2.5 cm) or tear ferning (grades 2, 2, 2.5). Severe conjunctivitis significantly increased TV by nearly 10-fold (631, 97, 65 µL) initially (reflex tearing), although basal TV returned rapidly (<5 minutes) in all eyes (46, 58, 48 µL). Finally, there was a nonsignificant trend for higher reflex TTR in the conjunctivitis vs control eyes (68, 58, 43%/min). CONCLUSIONS: Experimentally induced conjunctivitis increases tear quantity and decreases tear quality in dogs, but has no impact on corneal sensitivity. Changes in tear film dynamics could affect ocular pharmacology (eg, precorneal retention time), although homeostasis of lacrimal volume and drainage is rapidly restored.

Impact of diurnal variation, sex, tear collection method, and disease state on tear protein levels in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of various biological factors on total protein concentration (TPC) and serum albumin levels in canine tears. ANIMALS STUDIED: 10 healthy beagles (5 female, 5 male) were used. PROCEDURES: Experiments were conducted on separate days, collecting tears with either capillary tubes or Schirmer strips, as follows: (i) Tear collection at 3 hours intervals (from 6 am to 12 am); and (ii) Tear collection before and 20 minutes following topical histamine application (1, 10, 375 mg/mL) to induce mild, moderate, and severe conjunctivitis, respectively. TPC and serum albumin were measured with infrared spectroscopy and ELISA, respectively. RESULTS: Tear film TPC and serum albumin ranged from 9.7-26.1 mg/mL and 6.4-1662.6 µg/mL, respectively. Protein levels did not differ significantly among time points (P ≥ .080). Median coefficient of variation (CV%) was lower with Schirmer strips compared to capillary tubes for both TPC (12% vs 15%, P = .020) and serum albumin (57% vs 78%, P = .232). TPC (P < .001), but not serum albumin was greater in male vs. female dogs. Serum albumin, but not TPC (P ≥ .099), increased significantly with each grade of conjunctivitis severity (P < .001), with no differences between collection devices (P ≥ .322); median increase was 106%, 1389%, and 2871% in eyes with mild, moderate, and severe conjunctivitis, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There is no apparent diurnal variation in canine tear protein levels. Blood-tear barrier breakdown with conjunctivitis allows serum albumin to leak into the tear film at high concentrations. Schirmer strips compare well with capillary tubes for bioanalytical purposes in healthy and diseased eyes, and this collection method may offer improved reproducibility for protein quantification.

Ocular findings and selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests in a group of young commercially available Guinea and Skinny pigs (Cavia porcellus).

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to evaluate a group of young commercially available Skinny pigs, to gain information regarding ocular findings in this breed of guinea pig. Comparisons of ocular findings are to be made between Skinny pigs and haired guinea pigs. ANIMAL STUDIED: Ten haired guinea pigs and ten Skinny pigs were examined. PROCEDURE: A complete ophthalmic examination including Schirmer tear test-II (STT-II), phenol red thread test (PRTT), rebound tonometry with TonoVet PLUS, Fluorescein and Rose Bengal stain was performed. Microbiology swabs for aerobic bacterial growth were collected from conjunctiva of both eyes prior to the ophthalmic examination. RESULTS: The ophthalmic examination revealed seven abnormal ocular findings: trichiasis, mucopurulent discharge, hyperemia/chemosis of the conjunctiva, corneal fibrosis, corneal vascularization, and foreign body on the cornea or conjunctiva. Skinny pigs had a significantly higher amount of mucopurulent discharge (P = .0133) and a significantly higher STT-II (P < .001) than haired guinea pigs. Although not significant, trichiasis, keratitis with corneal vascularization, and foreign body presence were more common in Skinny pigs. Significantly more Skinny pigs had Pasteurellaceae isolated from their conjunctiva than haired guinea pigs (P = .0112). Antimicrobial susceptibility for the five Pasteurellaceae organisms isolated revealed susceptibility toward oxytetracycline, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin, whereas resistance was found toward erythromycin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and moxifloxacin. CONCLUSION: Young Skinny pigs have a higher risk of Pasteurellaceae-associated conjunctivitis. Oxytetracycline, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin were identified as topical antibiotics that may be useful for Pasteurellaceae-associated conjunctivitis in Skinny pigs.

A novel herpesvirus associated with chronic superficial keratitis and proliferative conjunctivitis in a great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).

An adult great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus; GHOW) presented with a history of recurrent corneal ulceration of the right eye (OD). Findings included ulcerative superficial keratitis, proliferative conjunctivitis, and iris pigmentary changes. The ulcer was initially nonresponsive to medical therapy, but showed rapid and appropriate healing following diamond burr debridement. Proliferative conjunctivitis markedly improved following topical antiviral therapy with cidofovir 1%, interferon alpha 2B ophthalmic solutions, and oral l-lysine. Histopathologic evaluation of a conjunctival biopsy revealed epithelial features suspicious for viral cytopathic changes and intranuclear structures suspicious for viral inclusions, suggestive of a possible viral-induced papillomatous conjunctivitis. A novel alphaherpesvirus, referred to as Strigid Herpesvirus 1 (StrHV1), was identified using PCR and gene sequencing. This case represents a new clinical manifestation of a previously unreported herpesvirus in the GHOW. Identification of the herpes virus was critical to administration of appropriate therapy and resolution of the conjunctivitis, and corneal epithelial debridement promoted resolution of the chronic corneal epithelial defect.

Detection and molecular characterization of Acanthamoeba spp. in stray cats from Madrid, Spain.

Acanthamoeba spp. is a widespread protozoan that has been isolated from air, dust, soil, water and biological samples. An opportunistic pathogen of humans and animals, it may cause ocular keratitis, encephalitis, and even multisystem disease. The frequency of Acanthamoeba in animals is unknown. The aim of present study was determine the presence of Acanthamoeba spp. in immunocompromised stray cats - animals possibly more likely to harbour the infection given their immunocompromised status and frequenting of contaminated environments. Of 307 cats examined, 55 were positive for feline immunodeficiency virus and/or feline leukaemia virus and therefore included in the study. Corneal scrapings were obtained to isolate Acanthamoeba spp. by culture and molecular detection by conventional and real time PCR. None of the samples examined directly by molecular methods were positive for Acanthamoeba spp. However, two (3.6%) cases of the cultured samples provided positive results, which were confirmed by subsequent molecular analysis. Sequencing assigned one isolate to genotype T4 and the other to T2. Since Acanthamoeba spp. may also infect animals and humans, the present findings may raise some public health and veterinary concerns.

Amniotic membrane transplantation for ligneous conjunctivitis in a doberman.

An approximately 2-year-old female Doberman Pinscher was referred for the evaluation of bilateral, chronic proliferative conjunctivitis. Ophthalmic examination revealed bilateral thick, opaque pseudomembranes originating from the conjunctivae that prevented visualization of the cornea and interior structures of the eye. Histopathological findings of biopsies of the pseudomembranes were consistent with ligneous conjunctivitis. Serum plasminogen activity levels were within the normal range. Treatment with topical and systemic anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs did not improve the conjunctival lesions. The pseudomembranes were surgically excised, and the conjunctival surfaces were reconstructed with amniotic membrane. At final re-examination two years postsurgery, there was no evidence of recurrence of the pseudomembranes. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of the successful treatment of canine ligneous conjunctivitis with amniotic membrane transplantation.

Feline Epitheliotropic Mastocytic Conjunctivitis in 15 Cats.

Mast cell infiltration occurs in malignant, inflammatory (eg, allergic, infectious), and idiopathic disease processes in humans and animals. Here, we describe the clinical and histological features of a unique proliferative conjunctivitis occurring in 15 cats. Ocular specimens were examined histologically, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) was performed on ocular tissues obtained from 10 cats. Cats had a median age of 8 years (range: 7 months-17.5 years). The known median duration of ocular lesions prior to biopsy was 4 months (range: 1 week-3 years). Ocular disease was unilateral in 12 cats, and 9 cats had coexisting corneal disease. Clinically and histologically, proliferative or nodular conjunctival lesions were noted in 13 cats. The nictitating membrane was affected in 10 cats. Histologically, lesions were characterized by mixed inflammatory infiltrates with an abundance of Giemsa-positive and toluidine blue-positive intraepithelial and subepithelial mast cells, marked edema, and papillary epithelial hyperplasia. Feline herpesvirus 1 was demonstrated by PCR in 1 of 10 cats tested. Follow-up information was available for 14 cats: 8 had no recurrence during a median follow-up period of 17.5 months (range: 4.5-30 months), 2 underwent orbital exenteration, 3 had recurrence that was medically managed, and 1 cat had diffuse conjunctivitis at the time of biopsy and recurrence was deemed irrelevant. Various ocular medications were administered before and after surgical biopsy. This condition was designated as feline epitheliotropic mastocytic conjunctivitis, with intraepithelial mast cells being an essential feature and papillary epithelial proliferation being characteristic but not diagnostic alone. The condition appears to be uncommon and benign. Although the cause is unknown, an allergic component is possible.

Chlamydia felis: Lack of association between clinical signs and the presence of the cryptic plasmid.

Chlamydia felis is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that infects cats, causing severe conjunctivitis associated with upper respiratory tract disease (URTD). In the present study, 186 cats from three non-commercial catteries in São Paulo, SP, Brazil were evaluated. The detection of Chlamydia felis was performed by PCR. The clinical severity was scored from 1 to 4, with a score of 4 as the most severe manifestation. The total occurrence of C. felis was of 18.82% (35/186) of cats overall, but notably, 58.06% (18/31) of infected cats originated from a single cattery. All animals harboring C. felis had URTD clinical signs and higher scores (3 and 4). In addition, C. felis occurrence was associated with the presence of cryptic plasmid. However, the virulence and clinical severity were not correlated.

Protozoal infections of the cornea and conjunctiva in dogs associated with chronic ocular surface disease and topical immunosuppression.

OBJECTIVE: To describe five cases of protozoal keratitis or conjunctivitis in dogs with chronic preexisting ocular surface disease treated with long-term immunosuppression. ANIMALS STUDIED: Five dogs that developed corneal or conjunctival mass lesions. PROCEDURES: The database of the Comparative Ocular Pathology Laboratory of Wisconsin was searched for canine cases diagnosed with corneal or conjunctival protozoal infection. Five cases were identified, and tissues were examined using routine and special histochemical stains: immunohistochemical labels for Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, and Leishmania spp., and tissue sample PCR for Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi, tissue coccidia (i.e., T. gondii/Sarcocystis/Neospora), piroplasms, trichomonads, and Acanthamoeba. Electron microscopy was performed for two cases, and serology for N. caninum and T. gondii was available for three cases. RESULTS: Preexisting ocular diseases included keratoconjunctivitis sicca and pigmentary keratitis (n = 4) and pyogranulomatous meibomian adenitis (n = 1). All dogs were treated with tacrolimus or cyclosporine for at least 1.2 years. Dogs were presented with fleshy corneal or conjunctival masses that were clinically suspected to be neoplastic (n = 4) or immune mediated (n = 1). Histologic examination revealed granulomatous inflammation with intralesional protozoal organisms. Amoeba (n = 2), T. gondii (n = 2), or Leishmania mexicana (n = 1) were identified using molecular techniques. Serological tests were negative. CONCLUSIONS: Protozoal keratitis and conjunctivitis without systemic involvement appears rare and may be associated with chronic preexisting ocular surface disease treated with long-term immunosuppression. Based upon clinical appearance, lesions could be confused with neoplasia. This is the first report of amoebic keratoconjunctivitis in dogs and of L. mexicana in dogs in the United States.

Features and outcome of a glomerulonephropathy associated with ligneous conjunctivitis in a Doberman pinscher dog.

This report describes a 3-year-old female Doberman pinscher dog with ligneous conjunctivitis and a protein-losing nephropathy not associated with underlying plasminogen deficiency. Glomerulonephropathy in this circumstance had a positive outcome.

Caractéristiques et résultats d'une glomérulonéphropathie associée à une conjonctivite ligneuse chez un chien Doberman. Ce rapport décrit une chienne Doberman pinscher âgée de 3 ans souffrant de conjonctivite ligneuse et de néphropathie avec perte de protéines non associée à une carence de plasminogène sous-jacente. Dans cette circonstance, la glomérulonéphropathie a eu une résolution favorable.(Traduit par Isabelle Vallières).

Conjunctival flora of clinically normal and diseased turtles and tortoises.

BACKGROUND: In captive breed turtles and tortoises conjunctival disease is common. Our aim was to investigate the bacterial and fungal flora present in the eyes of healthy and pathological chelonians and to compare findings in turtles with those in tortoises. RESULTS: Samples were taken from the conjunctival sacs of 34, diseased and healthy, chelonians (18 tortoises and 16 turtles) and submitted to bacterial and fungal investigation. All samples showed bacterial growth. Thirteen animals (38%), harboured a single bacterial species as sole isolate and twenty-one animals (62%) harboured more than one species. Detection of multiple bacterial infection was clearly greater in tortoises compared to turtles. Most frequently isolated bacterial species were Bacillus spp. (13 isolates), Staphylococcus xylosus (10 isolates), Sphingomonas paucimobilis (6 isolates), Staphylococcus sciuri and Aeromonas hydrophila/caviae (each 5 isolates), Ochrobactrum anthropi (3 isolates), Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas luteola (each 2 isolates). Only one isolate of Kocuria varians/rosea, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus lentus, Morganella morganii, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella pneumotropica/haemolytica, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas putida, Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Vibrio parahaemolyticus was evidenced. The presence in 8 animals of Mycoplasma spp. and in 1 animal with severe conjunctivitis of Chlamydia spp. was detected by PCR. Candida spp. was also isolated from two healthy animals. CONCLUSIONS: A clear predominance of Gram positive isolates in tortoises and Gram negative isolates in turtles was found. However, we cannot ascribe the observed difference to the diversity of animal species, as other factors, including especially different characteristics of the living environments, may play a role. Almost all bacterial species isolated may have clinical significance, mostly as opportunistic pathogens, both for humans and animals. That chelonians are often carrier of bacteria with zoonotic potential is a well-known fact, in particular with regard to Salmonella spp. Therefore, it is not surprising the detection of a strain of Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae in the eye of one of the animals tested. Worthy of note is the finding of Chlamydia spp. in a severe case of conjunctivitis, though we cannot epidemiologically assess a cause-effect relationship between presence of chlamydia and disease.

Insight into behavior of epithelial cells of the feline conjunctiva in chronic conjunctivitis as a possible limitation in detection of Chlamydophila spp.

The aims of this work was documentation of the reactivity of feline conjunctival epithelial cells in chronic conjunctivitis and the investigation of a possible correlation of histological findings in conjunctiva with a limitation in detection of the pathogen. In this observational study, conjunctival swab samples collected from six cats suffering from chronic conjunctivitis were monitored for Chlamydophila spp. infection for one month, every ten days. Chlamydophilosis was diagnosed by conventional PCR, and confirmed by sequencing analysis. A lack of coherence with results in subsequent studies using PCR did not allow an accurate diagnosis. Additional bioptat samples of conjunctiva were collected for diagnostic purposes and stained in haematoxylin and eosin following the Giemsa method for light microscopic analysis. Additionally the samples were incubated for 15 min with IMAGEN Chlamydia conjugate (IMAGEN Chlamydia reagent kit, Dako, UK), allowing immunofluorescence detection of Chlamydophila spp. Within the epithelium an increased number of goblet cells, as well as general enlargement of the epithelium and a reduced number of normal epithelial cells, was observed. Only in areas of low epithelium could structures similar to the elementary bodies of Chlamydophila spp. be distinguished. The presented data document a possible limitation in molecular evidence for chlamydophila infection in some naturally infected cats, taking into account histological conditions in conjunctiva at the same time.

Chlamydia suis survival in dust: First insights.

Chlamydia (C.) suis, a zoonotic intracellular bacterium, is described as a causative agent for conjunctivitis, particularly in nursery and fattening pigs. Chlamydiaceae are claimed to survive drying and to persist in dust. The objective of this study was to evaluate the viability of Chlamydia in dust sampled in a fattening pig farm with a high appearance of chlamydial-induced conjunctivitis. Dust was collected and stored at room temperature. To evaluate bacterial load and survival over time, quantitative PCR (Chlamydiaceae, C. suis) and isolation in cell culture were performed every week for up to 16 weeks. While qPCR results remained highly positive with consistent bacterial loads between 103 and 104 copy numbers/100 µL eluate over a period of 16 weeks and even after 40 weeks, it was not possible to isolate Chlamydia except for the initial sample. These results show only short-term viability of C. suis in dust. This is an important information regarding reduction of chlamydial loads in pig farms and risk for pigs and people to get infected via dust.