The quality of teaching behaviors in learning environments of DHH students.

Classrooms are complex learning environments, with instruction, climate, and teacher-student interactions playing important roles in students' academic progress. To investigate the learning environments of deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students, we developed a new observational tool called the Quality of the Learning Environment-DHH rating scale (QLE-DHH) and rated 98 teachers of DHH students being educated in a range of classroom environments. The present study sought to (1) determine if the items on the QLE-DHH are good indicators of theoretically meaningful dimensions of classroom quality; (2) determine to what extent these dimensions predicted language and reading outcomes of DHH students; and (3) examine how teachers of DHH students were rated on the indicators of classroom quality. The findings suggested that the QLE-DHH has excellent structural validity. Ratings predicted student reading outcomes. Finally, the QLE-DHH was able to capture teachers' strengths and skills in need of improvement. The QLE-DHH appears to hold promise for use in both research and teacher preparation programs.

The effect of retrieval practice on vocabulary learning for DHH children.

On average, deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children have difficulty developing expressive spoken vocabulary comparable to hearing peers. Yet, there are no evidence-based practices to guide classroom instruction for teachers of the deaf. Retrieval practice-a robust learning strategy-has been shown to improve children's retention of vocabulary, but it has not been investigated with DHH children who use listening and spoken language. The present study examined whether DHH children benefit from using retrieval practice to learn new vocabulary. Sixteen DHH children (in the age range of 5.0-8.11 years) were taught a set of new vocabulary words using retrieval practice or repeated exposure. A recall test was administered two days later. Results showed that DHH children were twice as likely to recall a word taught through retrieval practice than exposure (OR = 2.01, p = .02). Presence of an additional diagnosis and number of practice trials were also significant predicting factors of vocabulary learning.

Developing expressive language skills of deaf students through specialized writing instruction.

Writing is an essential element of literacy development, and language plays a central role in the composing process, including developing, organizing, and refining ideas. Language and writing are interconnected, making it paramount for educators to attend to the development of deaf students' language skills. In this quasi-experimental study, we examined the impact of strategic and interactive pedagogical approaches, namely Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction, implemented with deaf students in grades 3-6 to develop genre-specific traits in their expressive language (spoken or signed) and writing. In this study, a total of 16 teachers and their 69 students participated in the treatment and comparison groups. Expressive language and writing samples were collected at the beginning and end of the year for three different genres. Students in the treatment group showed statistically significant gains in their expressive and written language for recount and information genres when compared to students in the comparison group. There was not a significant treatment effect on persuasive expressive language or writing. In addition, there was a significant positive correlation between expressive language and writing at both time points across all three genres. This study provides evidence on the importance of attending to language skills during literacy instruction.

The interpreter's role and deaf students' autonomy in mainstream classrooms.

This article explores the interpreter's role and approaches to working with deaf students as seen from deaf individuals' and interpreters' perspectives. A group of 41 formerly mainstreamed deaf individuals and interpreters offered insights into how the interpreter's role in mainstream classrooms influences deaf student autonomy and participation. This research illustrates the significance of autonomy for mainstreamed deaf students and suggests a correlation between the interpreter's role and deaf students' perceived autonomy in the classroom. In addition, the findings suggest that deaf students do not always know what an interpreter is supposed to do in K-12 classrooms. This study also finds that educational team members do not always explicitly communicate their roles and responsibilities to deaf students, leading to confusion that impacts their autonomy and overall experience. Finally, this research finds that deaf students are not trained with the ability to negotiate and renegotiate the interpreter's role. This article concludes with considerations and recommendations for deaf education and interpreter education communities.

Deaf/hard of hearing students' experiences with higher education's real-time captioning services.

Real-time captions appear to be an effective tool in assisting deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) college students' access information and communication in certain classroom settings. However, there is limited knowledge of DHH students' direct experiences with real-time captioning services. In this study, we gathered narratives from 15 DHH college students across the United States about their experiences with real-time captioning services in college. We analyzed the stories using thematic narrative analysis and uncovered 4 types that students told about their experiences. The story types were (a) stories of overcoming obstacles, (b) stories of resignation, (c) pragmatic stories, and (d) stories of personal connection. These story types reveal that although many students eventually experience effective communication access through real-time captioning services, they can initially struggle to overcome barriers to using the services successfully. Making time and space to listen to DHH students' narratives can teach educators and professionals how to support these students and resolve barriers before they arise.

Think-Aloud: Effect on Adolescent Deaf Students' Use of Reading Comprehension Strategies.

This study examined the effect of explicit instruction of reading comprehension strategies, such as identification of unknown vocabulary and relating text to background knowledge, on four deaf and hard of hearing students' use of strategies and reading comprehension performance pre- and post-intervention. Explicit instruction of strategies consisted of discussion of targeted strategies and think-aloud (verbalizing one's thought processes while reading) to model strategies. The data presented is from a more in-depth study completed during the 2017-2018 academic year. Few studies have implemented think-aloud in evaluating deaf adolescents' reading challenges and the efficacy of strategy use. This study provided insight into both of these issues. Results show an increase in the variety of strategies used by students and frequency of strategy use post-intervention. Results also indicate improved comprehension scores for two students. Close examination of the data, however, reveals ongoing metacognitive challenges (such as lack of consistent identification of key unknown words and lack of awareness of comprehension breakdowns) and inconsistency in the efficacious use of strategies. Findings indicate a need for ongoing assessment of the depth and efficacy of strategy use and individualized instruction.

Deaf Children's Engagement with American Sign Language-English Bilingual Storybook Apps.

Design features of American Sign Language (ASL)-English bilingual storybook apps on the tablet computers, based on learning research, are intended to facilitate independent and interactive learning of English print literacy and of ASL skill among young learners. In 2013, the Science of Learning Center on Visual Language and Visual Learning introduced the first in a series of storybook apps for the iPad based on literacy and reading research. The current study, employing a sample of signing deaf children examined children's self-motivated engagement with the various design features presented in the earliest of the apps, The Baobab, and analyzed the relationships of engagement with ASL skill and age of first exposure to ASL, ASL narrative ability, and grade-appropriate English reading ability. Results indicated a robust level of engagement with the app, and a relationship between app pages specifically targeting reading and early exposure and skill levels in ASL. No evidence of relationships between narrative and vocabulary skills and app reading engagement was found. Topics for future research, and strategies for app improvement are discussed.

Deaf Student-Interpreter Relationships and Feedback Practices in K-12 Mainstream Deaf Education.

This study explores Deaf individuals' and sign language interpreters' perspectives on what it is like to work together in K-12 education. A group of 41 formerly mainstreamed Deaf individuals and interpreters offers insights into interactional dynamics (e.g., the deaf student-interpreter relationship) that influence interpreters' work, deaf students' participation and learning, and feedback practices. This study illustrates the significance of the deaf student-interpreter relationship and suggests a correlation between this relationship and deaf students' participation and positioning in mainstream classrooms. In addition, the findings suggest a correlation between the deaf student-interpreter relationship and feedback practices in mainstream education. Finally, this study finds that deaf students do not always know that they can engage in feedback conversations with interpreters or know how to engage interpreters to ask for what they need to learn. This article concludes with considerations and recommendations for the deaf education and interpreter education communities.

Engagement of Children who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Attending Mainstream Schools.

This study compared the observed and the self-reported engagement of 16 students who are Deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) attending mainstream schools to that of matched controls with typical hearing. Observed engagement was measured through observations in the classroom setting using the Mainstream Version of the Code for Instructional Structure and Student Academic Reponses. Self-reported engagement was measured using the Classroom Participation Questionnaire. The results revealed no significant differences for either observed or self-reported engagement between the DHH and the control groups; however, three individual DHH participants had lower levels of observed engagement compared to their matched controls. As such, including engagement in the evaluation of students who are DHH may be important for some individuals to provide a better understanding of the daily challenges they experience at school. Where needs are identified, the support that students who are DHH receive should include a specific focus on engagement to assist with their successful inclusion.

Effects of Schema-Enriched Communication in Teams With Diverse Hearing Status.

This study examined the effects of (a) schema-enriched communication and (b) computer-based messaging on the sharing of knowledge and problem solving in teams with deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) and typical hearing (TH) postsecondary students. Four-member teams comprising either all DHH, all TH, or two DHH and two TH postsecondary students solved a complex problem. Measures consisted of (a) shared written information, (b) creation of a matrix with information for solving the problem, (c) recognition of information shared by team members, and (d) quality of the team's problem solution. A total of 126 DHH and 126 TH postsecondary students participated in the study in teams with one of the three combinations of hearing status. Enriched communication increased teams' sharing of written information, creation of a matrix, recognition of information shared by teammates and quality of the problem solution in teams.

Deaf Students' Translanguaging Practices in a Further Education College: Situating the Semiotic Repertoire in Social Interactions.

Further education (FE) colleges are the most usual postsecondary education destination for deaf young people in England. The role of college contexts in promoting deaf students' learning warrants further exploration given the gaps in educational attainment common to deaf students and the potential for FE context to provide new and/or enhanced linguistic resources in comparison with school. The main research question is: How do deaf students' translanguaging practices change according to the different contexts of interlocution in college? Translanguaging entails the flexible use of semiotic resources not bounded by named languages. This ethnographic study reports on five deaf college students' translanguaging practices. Findings are presented under three moments of translanguaging: (1) translanguaging expanded, or deaf students widening their repertoires to engage in communication; (2) translanguaging restricted, or deaf students accommodating to their communicative partners' needs; (3) translanguaging channeled, or the dominance of English countering the flexibility of translanguaging. It is argued that translanguaging should be promoted in whole classrooms. Otherwise, it will reinforce the dominance of hearing communication practices and hinder deaf students' multilingual/multimodal repertoires.

Health-Related Quality of Life in Children With Low Language or Congenital Hearing Loss, as Measured by the PedsQL and Health Utility Index Mark 3.

OBJECTIVES: To examine health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in young children with low language or congenital hearing loss and to explore the value of assessing HRQoL by concurrently administering 2 HRQoL instruments in populations of children. METHODS: Data were from 2 Australian community-based studies: Language for Learning (children with typical and low language at age 4 years, n = 1012) and the Statewide Comparison of Outcomes study (children with hearing loss, n = 108). HRQoL was measured using the parent-reported Health Utilities Index Mark 3 (HUI3) and the Pediatrics Quality of Life Inventory 4.0 (PedsQL) generic core scale. Agreement between the HRQoL instruments was assessed using intraclass correlation and Bland-Altman plots. RESULTS: Children with low language and with hearing loss had lower HRQoL than children with normal language; the worst HRQoL was experienced by children with both. The lower HRQoL was mainly due to impaired school functioning (PedsQL) and speech and cognition (HUI3). Children with hearing loss also had impaired physical and social functioning (PedsQL), vision, hearing, dexterity, and ambulation (HUI3). Correlations between instruments were poor to moderate, with low agreement. CONCLUSIONS: Children with low language and congenital hearing loss might benefit from interventions targeting overall health and well-being, not just their impairments. The HUI3 and PedsQL each seemed to provide unique information and thus may supplement each other in assessing HRQoL of young children, including those with low language or congenital hearing loss.

The Limits of "Communication Mode" as a Construct.

Questions about communication mode (a.k.a. "communication options" or "communication opportunities") remain among the most controversial issues in the many fields that are concerned with the development and well-being of children (and adults) who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing. In this manuscript, we argue that a large part of the reason that this debate persists is due to limitations of the construct itself. We focus on what we term "the crucial question": namely, what kind of experience with linguistic input during infancy and toddlerhood is most likely to result in mastery of at least one language (spoken or signed) by school entry. We argue that the construct of communication mode-as currently construed-actively prevents the discovery of compelling answers to that question. To substantiate our argument, we present a review of a relevant subset of the recent empirical literature and document the prevalence of our concerns. We conclude by articulating the desiderata of an alternative construct that, if appropriately measured, would have the potential to yield answers to what we identify as "the crucial question."

Language Environments and Spoken Language Development of Children With Hearing Loss.

This study examined the relationships between adult language input and child language production in regard to the quantity and diversity of spoken language, as well as children's knowledge of basic concepts and vocabulary. The quantity and diversity of language provided by teachers and parents were related to children's language output and knowledge. Language ENvironment Analysis technology audio-recorded the language environments of 26 preschool children with hearing loss over 2 days. The language samples were analyzed for quantity (adult word count, child vocalization count, and conversational turn count) and diversity (lexical diversity, syntactical complexity, and clausal complexity) of language. Results indicated a relationship between adult language input and child language production, but only in regard to the quantity of language. Significant differences between the teachers and parents were reported in regard to the diversity of adult language input. These results suggest that the language input provided by adults across environments (school versus home) is considerably different and warrants further investigation.

The Effects of a Vocabulary Intervention on Teaching Multiple-Meaning Words to Students Who Are d/Deaf and Hard of Hearing.

Building vocabulary knowledge, especially breadth and depth of word meanings, is a crucial step in assisting students to read and comprehend print independently. A large body of research has documented the low reading achievement levels of a number of Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students. The goal of the present study was to examine the effects of a vocabulary intervention to teach 24 multiple-meaning words to fourth-grade DHH students in Saudi Arabia by utilizing a single-case experimental design (multiple probe design across participants). A total of 5 students with a profound hearing loss participated in the study. About 3 of 5 received the intervention, whereas two other students served as an additional control component and were administered the pretest and posttest only. The data showed that there was a significant improvement in the recognition and comprehension scores of students who received the intervention. In contrast, students who did not receive the intervention showed no significant improvement on the posttest.

Outcomes for School-Aged Children with Aural Atresia.

This study compared the language, reading, classroom, and quality of life outcomes of primary school-aged children with aural atresia (AA) to matched controls. Participants included 10 children with AA (eight unilateral) and 10 children with typical hearing matched by chronological and mental age. All children with AA had been fitted with an amplification device. Outcome measures included standardized tests of language, reading, and functional communication questionnaires of children's classroom performance and hearing quality of life. The children with AA recorded significantly reduced hearing quality of life. The two groups did not differ on any other measures. The present preliminary findings suggest that children with AA who receive early amplification have similar language, communication, reading, and classroom outcomes as their typically hearing peers. Despite these promising outcomes, however, the children's quality of life is significantly reduced. Further research is needed to further elucidate these findings.

The Evidence-Based Sexual Abuse Prevention Program: Strong With Sam.

The present study was initiated to design and evaluate a sexual abuse prevention program for deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children. This evidence-based prevention program is the first of its kind for DHH children. A total of 92 DHH children aged 8-12 years participated in the program "STARK mit SAM" (Strong with Sam, SmS), a program conducted in primary schools for DHH children in Germany. The program evaluation consisted of a pretest-posttest design. As per class, the subjects were assigned to either the experimental or the wait list control group. Participants from both groups were pretested for their knowledge about content related to the prevention of sexual abuse. The experimental group received the prevention program and both groups were posttested to examine the effects of the program. Additionally, the experimental group was tested again 6 months after the program. DHH children who participated in the SmS program showed a significant knowledge gain and a nonsignificant change in their anxiety. No significant factor affecting the children's significant knowledge gain was found. SmS is an effective sexual abuse prevention program for DHH children, which can be offered without incurring anxiety in the children.

Systematic Review of Curriculum-Based Measurement with Students Who Are Deaf.

This review systematically identified and compared the technical adequacy (reliability and validity evidence) of reading curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tasks administered to students who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This review included all available literature written in English. The nine studies identified used four CBM tasks: signed reading fluency, silent reading fluency, cloze (write in missing words given blank lines within a passage), and maze (circle the target word given multiple choice options within a passage). Data obtained from these measures were generally found to be internally consistent and stable with validity evidence varying across measures. Emerging evidence supports the utility of CBM for students who are DHH. Further empirical evidence is needed to continue to explore technical properties, identify if student scores are sensitive to growth over short periods of time, and examine whether CBM data can be used to inform instructional decision-making to improve student outcomes.

Technical Characteristics of Curriculum-Based Measurement With Students Who Are Deaf.

This study compared the reliability and validity of student scores from paper-pencil and e-based assessments using the "maze" and "silent reading fluency" (SRF) tasks. Forty students who were deaf and hard of hearing and reading between the second and fifth grade reading levels and their teachers (n = 21) participated. For maze, alternate form reliability coefficients obtained from correct scores and correct scores adjusted for guessing ranged from r = .61 to .84 (ps < .01); criterion-related validity coefficients ranged from r = .33 to .67 (most ps < .01). For SRF, reliability coefficients obtained from correct scores ranged from r = .50 to .75 (ps < .01); validity ranged from r = .25 to .72. Differences between student performance on paper-pencil and e-based conditions were generally non-significant for maze; significant differences between conditions for SRF favored the paper-pencil condition. Findings suggest that maze holds promise, with inconclusive results for SRF.

Deaf Community Cultural Wealth in Community College Students.

Deaf students are members of a linguistic and cultural minority whose background and experiences provide a unique backdrop for the navigation of higher education. Using the framework of Deaf community cultural wealth, this study examines the experiences of Deaf students in community college and their utilization of various forms of capital. Findings showed that they exhibited instances of resistant, navigational, social, and familial capital in accessing and persisting in higher education.