Overlaps Between CDS Regions of Protein-Coding Genes in the Human Genome: A Case Study on the NR1D1-THRA Gene Pair.

For several decades, it has been known that a substantial number of genes within human DNA exhibit overlap; however, the biological and evolutionary significance of these overlaps remain poorly understood. This study focused on investigating specific instances of overlap where the overlapping DNA region encompasses the coding DNA sequences (CDSs) of protein-coding genes. The results revealed that proteins encoded by overlapping CDSs exhibit greater disorder than those from nonoverlapping CDSs. Additionally, these DNA regions were identified as GC-rich. This could be partially attributed to the absence of stop codons from two distinct reading frames rather than one. Furthermore, these regions were found to harbour fewer single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) sites, possibly due to constraints arising from the overlapping state where mutations could affect two genes simultaneously.While elucidating these properties, the NR1D1-THRA gene pair emerged as an exceptional case with highly structured proteins and a distinctly conserved sequence across eutherian mammals. Both NR1D1 and THRA are nuclear receptors lacking a ligand-binding domain at their C-terminus, which is the region where these gene pairs overlap. The NR1D1 gene is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythm, while the THRA gene encodes a thyroid hormone receptor, and both play crucial roles in various physiological processes. This study suggests that, in addition to their well-established functions, the specifically overlapping CDS regions of these genes may encode protein segments with additional, yet undiscovered, biological roles.

Thyroid hormone receptor beta mutations alter photoreceptor development and function in Danio rerio (zebrafish).

We investigate mutations in trß2, a splice variant of thrb, identifying changes in function, structure, and behavior in larval and adult zebrafish retinas. Two N-terminus CRISPR mutants were identified. The first is a 6BP+1 insertion deletion frameshift resulting in a truncated protein. The second is a 3BP in frame deletion with intact binding domains. ERG recordings of isolated cone signals showed that the 6BP+1 mutants did not respond to red wavelengths of light while the 3BP mutants did respond. 6BP+1 mutants lacked optomotor and optokinetic responses to red/black and green/black contrasts. Both larval and adult 6BP+1 mutants exhibit a loss of red-cone contribution to the ERG and an increase in UV-cone contribution. Transgenic reporters show loss of cone trß2 activation in the 6BP+1 mutant but increase in the density of cones with active blue, green, and UV opsin genes. Antibody reactivity for red-cone LWS1 and LWS2 opsin was absent in the 6BP+1 mutant, as was reactivity for arrestin3a. Our results confirm a critical role for trß2 in long-wavelength cone development.

A New Mechanism in THRA Resistance: The First Disease-Associated Variant Leading to an Increased Inhibitory Function of THRA2.

The nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are key mediators of thyroid hormone function on the cellular level via modulation of gene expression. Two different genes encode THRs (THRA and THRB), and are pleiotropically involved in development, metabolism, and growth. The THRA1 and THRA2 isoforms, which result from alternative splicing of THRA, differ in their C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD). Most published disease-associated THRA variants are located in the LBD of THRA1 and impede triiodothyronine (T3) binding. This keeps the nuclear receptor in an inactive state and inhibits target gene expression. Here, we investigated a new dominant THRA variant (chr17:g.38,241,010A > G, GRCh37.13 | c.518A > G, NM_199334 | p.(E173G), NP_955366), which is located between the DNA- and ligand-binding domains and affects both splicing isoforms. Patients presented partially with hypothyroid (intellectual disability, motor developmental delay, brain atrophy, and constipation) and partially with hyperthyroid symptoms (tachycardia and behavioral abnormalities) to varying degrees. Functional characterization of THRA1p.(E173G) by reporter gene assays revealed increased transcriptional activity in contrast to THRA1(WT), unexpectedly revealing the first gain-of-function mutation found in THRA1. The THRA2 isoform does not bind T3 and antagonizes THRA1 action. Introduction of p.(E173G) into THRA2 increased its inhibitory effect on THRA1, which helps to explain the hypothyroid symptoms seen in our patients. We used protein structure models to investigate possible underlying pathomechanisms of this variant with a gain-of-antagonistic function and suggest that the p.(E173G) variant may have an influence on the dimerization domain of the nuclear receptor.

Mediator subunit MED1 modulates intranuclear dynamics of the thyroid hormone receptor.

The thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) mediate thyroid hormone (T3 )-dependent gene expression. The nuclear import and export signals that direct TR shuttling are well characterized, but little is known about factors modulating nuclear retention. We used fluorescence-based nucleocytoplasmic scoring and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching in transfected cells to investigate whether Mediator subunits MED1 and MED13 play a role in nuclear retention of TR. When MED1 was overexpressed, there was a striking shift towards a greater nuclear localization of TRß1 and the oncoprotein v-ErbA, subtypes with cytosolic populations at steady-state, and TRß1 intranuclear mobility was reduced. For TRα1, there was no observable change in its predominantly nuclear distribution pattern or mobility. Consistent with a role for MED1 in nuclear retention, the cytosolic TRα1 and TRß1 population were significantly greater in MED1-/- cells, compared with MED1+/+ cells. Exposure to T3 and epidermal growth factor, which induces MED1 phosphorylation, also altered TR intranuclear dynamics. Overexpression of miR-208a, which downregulates MED13, led to a more cytosolic distribution of nuclear-localized TRα1; however, overexpression of MED13 had no effect on TRß1 localization. The known binding site of MED1 overlaps with a transactivation domain and nuclear export signal in helix 12 of TR's ligand-binding domain (LBD). Coimmunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that TR's LBD interacts directly with exportins 5 and 7, suggesting that binding of exportins and MED1 to TR may be mutually exclusive. Collectively, our data provide evidence that MED1 promotes nuclear retention of TR, and highlight the dual functionality of helix 12 in TR transactivation and nuclear export.

Fate-restricted retinal progenitor cells adopt a molecular profile and spatial position distinct from multipotent progenitor cells.

During development, multipotent retinal progenitor cells generate a large number of unique cell types. Recent evidence suggests that there are fate-restricted progenitor cell states in addition to multipotent ones. Here we report a transcriptomic analysis of fate- restricted progenitor cells biased to produce cone photoreceptors and horizontal cells, marked by the THRB cis-regulatory element ThrbCRM1. Comparison to a control population enriched in multipotent progenitor cells identified several genes considered to be pan-progenitor, such as VSX2, LHX2, and PAX6, as downregulated in these fate- restricted retinal progenitor cells. This differential regulation occurs in chick and in a different restricted progenitor population in mouse suggesting that this is a conserved feature of progenitor dynamics during retinal development. S-phase labeling also revealed that nuclear positions of restricted progenitor populations occupy distinct spatial niches within the developing chick retina. Using a conserved regulatory element proximal to the VSX2 gene, a potential negative feedback mechanism from specific transcription factors enriched in cone/horizontal cell progenitor cells was identified. This study identifies conserved molecular and cellular changes that occur during the generation of fate restricted retinal progenitor cells from multipotent retinal progenitor cells.

[An analysis of GNAS and THRA gene mutations in children with congenital hypothyroidism].

OBJECTIVE: To preliminarily investigate the relationship between stimulatory G protein α subunit (GNAS) and thyroid hormone receptor α (THRA) gene mutations and clinical phenotypes in children with congenital hypothyroidism (CH). METHODS: A total of 70 children with CH diagnosed by neonatal screening were enrolled. Their peripheral blood samples were collected to extract genomic DNA. GNAS and THRA genes were screened for mutations using next-generation sequencing. Bioinformatics software was used to analyze the pathogenicity of gene mutations. RESULTS: Of the 70 children with CH, nine missense mutations (three known mutations and six novel mutations) in the GNAS gene were detected in three patients (4%), and one gene polymorphism, c.508A>G(p.I170V), in the THRA gene was detected in four patients. The analysis results of bioinformatics software and ACMG/AMP guidelines showed that the two GNAS gene mutations [c.301C>T(p.R101C) and c.334G>A(p.E112K)] were more likely to be pathogenic. Three children with GNAS gene mutations showed different degrees of hypothyroidism. CONCLUSIONS: GNAS gene mutations are related to the development of CH, and children with CH have different clinical manifestations. THRA gene mutations may not be associated with CH.

Resistance to thyroid hormone is modulated in vivo by the nuclear receptor corepressor (NCOR1).

Mutations in the ligand-binding domain of the thyroid hormone receptor ß (TRß) lead to resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH). These TRß mutants function in a dominant-negative fashion to interfere with the transcription activity of wild-type thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), leading to dysregulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis and resistance in peripheral tissues. The molecular mechanism by which TRß mutants cause RTH has been postulated to be an inability of the mutants to properly release the nuclear corepressors (NCORs), thereby inhibiting thyroid hormone (TH)-mediated transcription activity. To test this hypothesis in vivo, we crossed Thrb(PV) mice (a model of RTH) expressing a human TRß mutant (PV) with mice expressing a mutant Ncor1 allele (Ncor1(ΔID) mice) that cannot recruit a TR or a PV mutant. Remarkably, in the presence of NCOR1ΔID, the abnormally elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone and TH levels found in Thrb(PV) mice were modestly but significantly corrected. Furthermore, thyroid hyperplasia, weight loss, and other hallmarks of RTH were also partially reverted in mice expressing NCOR1ΔID. Taken together, these data suggest that the aberrant recruitment of NCOR1 by RTH TRß mutants leads to clinical RTH in humans. The present study suggests that therapies aimed at the TR-NCOR1 interaction or its downstream actions could be tested as potential targets in treating RTH.

System-level identification of transcriptional circuits underlying mammalian circadian clocks.

Mammalian circadian clocks consist of complexly integrated regulatory loops, making it difficult to elucidate them without both the accurate measurement of system dynamics and the comprehensive identification of network circuits. Toward a system-level understanding of this transcriptional circuitry, we identified clock-controlled elements on 16 clock and clock-controlled genes in a comprehensive surveillance of evolutionarily conserved cis elements and measurement of their transcriptional dynamics. Here we report the roles of E/E' boxes, DBP/E4BP4 binding elements and RevErbA/ROR binding elements in nine, seven and six genes, respectively. Our results indicate that circadian transcriptional circuits are governed by two design principles: regulation of E/E' boxes and RevErbA/ROR binding elements follows a repressor-precedes-activator pattern, resulting in delayed transcriptional activity, whereas regulation of DBP/E4BP4 binding elements follows a repressor-antiphasic-to-activator mechanism, which generates high-amplitude transcriptional activity. Our analysis further suggests that regulation of E/E' boxes is a topological vulnerability in mammalian circadian clocks, a concept that has been functionally verified using in vitro phenotype assay systems.

Effect of the Fetal THRB Genotype on the Placenta.

CONTEXT: Pregnant women with mutations in the thyroid hormone receptor beta (THRB) gene expose their fetuses to high thyroid hormone (TH) levels shown to be detrimental to a normal fetus (NlFe) but not to an affected fetus (AfFe). However, no information is available about differences in placental TH regulators. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether there are differences in placentas associated with a NlFe compared with an AfFe, we had the unique opportunity to study placentas from 2 pregnancies of the same woman with THRB mutation G307D. One placenta supported a NlFe while the other an AfFe. METHODS: Sections of placentas were collected and frozen at -80 °C after term delivery of a NlFe and an AfFe. Two placentas from healthy women of similar gestational age were also obtained. The fetal origin of the placental tissues was established by gDNA quantitation of genes on the X and Y chromosomes and THRB gene. Expression and enzymatic activity of deiodinases 2 and 3 were measured. Expression of following genes was also quantitated: MCT10, MCT8, LAT1, LAT2, THRB, THRA. RESULTS: The placenta carrying the AfFe exhibited a significant reduction of deiodinase 2 and 3 activities as well as the expression of the TH transporters MCT10, LAT1 and LAT2, and THRA. CONCLUSION: We present the first study of the effect of the fetal THRB genotype on the placenta. Though limited by virtue of the rarity of THRB mutations and sample availability, we show that the fetal THRB genotype influences the levels of TH regulators in the placenta.

Thyroid hormone resistance resulting from a novel mutation in the THRB gene in a Chinese child: A case report.

INTRODUCTION: Thyroid hormone resistance (RTH) (mim # 188570) is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder characterized by reduced thyroid hormone response in target tissues. The clinical manifestations of RTH vary from no symptoms to symptoms of thyroid hormone deficiency to symptoms of thyroid hormone excess. PATIENT CONCERN AND CLINICAL FINDINGS: A 24-month-old girl presented with growth retardation, tachycardia, and persistently elevated thyroid hormones despite antithyroid treatment. DIAGNOSIS/INTERVENTION/OUTCOMES: The patient was diagnosed with RTH, after whole exon gene sequencing, found a de novo missense mutation (c.1375T > G,p.Phe459Val) in a novel locus of the thyroid hormone receptor beta gene. She had only mild growth retardation, so the decision was made to monitor her development without intervention. At her last follow-up at 5 years and 8 months of age, she continued to show growth retardation (-2 standard deviation below age-appropriate levels), in addition to delayed language development. Her comprehension ability and heart rate have remained normal. CONCLUSIONS: We report a mild case of RTH caused by a novel thyroid hormone receptor beta gene mutation. RTH should be considered in the differential diagnosis of abnormal serum thyroxine levels during neonatal screening.

Reactivated thyroid hormone receptor ß attenuates anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) stem cell activity.

Anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is one of the most aggressive solid cancers in humans, with limited treatment options. Recent studies suggest that cancer stem cell (CSC) activity contributes to therapeutic resistance and recurrence of ATC. We show that the expression of the endogenous thyroid hormone receptor ß gene (THRB) is silenced in ATC and demonstrate that the exogenously expressed TRß suppresses CSC activity. Decitabine is one of the demethylation agents to treat myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia patients and is currently in clinical trials for hematopoietic malignancies and solid tumors. We aim to show that the re-expression of the endogenous THRB gene by decitabine can attenuate CSC activity to block ATC tumor growth. We treated ATC cell lines derived from human ATC tumors (11T and 16T cells) with decitabine and evaluated the effects of the reactivated endogenous TRß on CSC activity in vitro and in vivo xenograft models. We found that treatment of 11T and 16T cells with decitabine reactivated the expression of endogenous TRß, as evidenced by western blot and immunohistochemical analyses. The expressed TRß inhibited cell proliferation by arresting cells at the S phase, increased apoptotic cell death by upregulation of cleaved caspase-3, and markedly suppressed the expression of CSC regulators, including cMYC, ALDH, SOX2, CD44, and ß-catenin. Decitabine also inhibited xenograft tumor growth by suppressing CSC activity, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, and increasing apoptosis. Our findings suggest that re-expression of the endogenous TRß is a novel therapeutic approach for ATC via suppression of CSC activity.

KMT2D Regulates the NCOA6/THRB Signal Axis through Epigenetic Modification to Promote the Migration and Invasion of Papillary Thyroid Cancer.

BACKGROUND: The histone lysine methyltransferase Histone-lysine N-methytransferase 2D (KMT2D) is a common mutated gene in a variety of cancers, including papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). However, the mechanism of KMT2D on the progression of PTC remains unclear. METHODS: In this study, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting were used to evaluate KMT2D expression between human normal cell (Nthy-ori 3-1) and PTC cells (TPC1, IHH-4 and BCPAP). Proliferation, migration and invasion of TPC1, IHH-4 and BCPAP were assessed by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), Wound-healing assay and Transwell assay. The mechanism of KMT2D on thyroid papillary cancer was explored with Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP), qRT-PCR and Western blotting. RESULTS: The expression of KMT2D in PTC cells was significantly increased. Downregulation of KMT2D significantly decreased the proliferation, migration and invasion of PTC cells, which was correlated with decreased expression levels of H3K4me2, H3K9me2, NCOA6 and THRB. Meanwhile, ChIP assay demonstrated that KMT2D was associated with NCOA6. CONCLUSIONS: Study have shown that the downregulation of KMT2D reduces proliferation, migration and invasion of thyroid papillary carcinoma cells through epigenetic modification of NCOA6/THRB signal axis. These results provide a new insight into the role of KMT2D in migration and invasion of PTC.

Clinically Symptomatic Resistance to Thyroid Hormone ß Syndrome Because of THRB Gene Mosaicism.

CONTEXT: Resistance to thyroid hormone ß syndrome (RTHß) is caused by pathogenic variants in the THRB gene, but such variants are found in only 85% of cases. We report the case of a patient with RTHß phenotype but for whom we found a pathogenic variant of the THRB gene in a mosaic state. CASE DESCRIPTION: The patient is a 52-year-old woman with clinical and biological signs of RTHß. Symptoms included asthenia, cardiac palpitations, and diarrhea. Repeated thyroid function tests showed an elevated serum TSH, elevated serum free T4, and variably normal or slightly elevated serum fT3. Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging was normal, and the thyrotropin-releasing hormone test result was compatible with the diagnosis of RTHß syndrome. Initial Sanger sequencing on blood samples could not highlight the presence of a mosaic variant because of insufficient sensitivity. When next-generation sequencing became accessible, blood samples were retested and we found a known pathogenic variant: c.949G > A; p.(ala317Thr), with an allelic frequency of 12%. Other samples from tissues of different embryological origin were also tested and found an allelic frequency of 5.7%, 17.9%, 9.9%, 6.4%, and 0% on urine tests, oral swab, nasal mucosa swab, skin biopsy, and conjunctival swab, respectively. Cloning confirmed the allelic frequency observed. CONCLUSIONS: We highlight that a pathogenic variant in a mosaic state in the THRB gene may be the cause of an authentic RTHß syndrome. High-throughput sequencing of multiple tissues eases the detection of pathogenic variant in a mosaic state and allows the correct diagnosis of patients with true RTHß, thus avoiding patient mismanagement.

Regulation of the THRA gene, encoding the thyroid hormone nuclear receptor TRα1, in intestinal lesions.

The THRA gene, encoding the thyroid hormone nuclear receptor TRα1, is expressed in an increasing gradient at the bottom of intestinal crypts, overlapping with high Wnt and Notch activities. Importantly, THRA is upregulated in colorectal cancers, particularly in the high-Wnt molecular subtype. The basis of this specific and/or altered expression pattern has remained unknown. To define the mechanisms controlling THRA transcription and TRα1 expression, we used multiple in vitro and ex vivo approaches. Promoter analysis demonstrated that transcription factors important for crypt homeostasis and altered in colorectal cancers, such as transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2; Wnt pathway), recombining binding protein suppressor of hairless (RBPJ; Notch pathway), and homeobox protein CDX2 (epithelial cell identity), modulate THRA activity. Specifically, although TCF7L2 and CDX2 stimulated THRA, RBPJ induced its repression. In-depth analysis of the Wnt-dependent increase showed direct regulation of the THRA promoter in cells and of TRα1 expression in murine enteroids. Given our previous results on the control of the Wnt pathway by TRα1, our new results unveil a complex regulatory loop and synergy between these endocrine and epithelial-cell-intrinsic signals. Our work describes, for the first time, the regulation of the THRA gene in specific cell and tumor contexts.

Insights into erythroid differentiation obtained from studies on avian erythroblastosis virus.

Analysis of the oncogenes v-erbB and v-erbA and their normal proto-oncogene counterparts has revealed several novel aspects of erythroid differentiation. A new erythroid progenitor capable of extended self-renewal has been described, tyrosine kinase receptors and steroid hormone receptors have been found to cooperate in controlling self-renewal, and dramatic alterations in the cell cycle have been found to accompany induction of terminal differentiation.

The effect of oncoprotein v-erbA on thyroid hormone-regulated genes in hepatocytes and their potential role in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Mutant forms of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) with dominant negative activity are frequently found in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Interestingly, the v-erbA oncogene, known to exert a dominant-negative effect on the expression of thyroid hormone (T3)-responsive genes, led to the development of HCC in a transgenic mouse model. Thus it is possible that the oncogenic activity of v-erbA in hepatocytes may be mediated by its dominant negative activity on T3-responsive genes. Microarray analysis was used to identify genes differentially expressed in murine hepatocytes in culture (AML12 cells) stably transfected with v-erbA and exposed to T3. The Affymetrix GeneChip Mouse Genome 430 2.0 array consisted of over 39,000 transcripts representing well-known genes. We have identified twenty T3-responsive genes that are negatively regulated by v-erbA at 3 h, and eighteen genes at 24 h, such as follistatin, activin ßC, thrombomodulin, Six1, Rasgrp3 and Ndrg2, as well as genes that are regulated by v-erbA only, such as angiopoietin 1 and Igfr2. We have identified T3 responsive genes that are dysregulated by v-erbA. These genes are known to be involved in carcinogenesis. Our studies may provide insight into the potential role of mutant forms of TR in the pathogenesis of HCC.

Thyroid Hormone Nuclear Receptor TRα1 and Canonical WNT Pathway Cross-Regulation in Normal Intestine and Cancer.

A pivotal role of thyroid hormones and their nuclear receptors in intestinal development and homeostasis have been described, whereas their involvement in intestinal carcinogenesis is still controversial. In this perspective article we briefly summarize the recent advances in this field and present new data regarding their functional interaction with one of the most important signaling pathway, such as WNT, regulating intestinal development and carcinogenesis. These complex interactions unveil new concepts and will surely be of importance for translational research.

Thyroid hormone can favorably remodel the diabetic myocardium after acute myocardial infarction.

It has been previously shown that regulators of physiological growth such as thyroid hormone (TH) can favorably remodel the post ischaemic myocardium. Here, we further explored whether this effect can be preserved in the presence of co-morbidities such as diabetes which accelerates cardiac remodeling and increases mortality after myocardial infarction. Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) was induced by left coronary ligation in rats with type I diabetes (DM) induced by streptozotocin administration (STZ; 35 mg/kg; i.p.) while sham-operated animals served as controls (SHAM). AMI resulted in distinct changes in cardiac function and geometry; EF% was significantly decreased in DM-AMI [37.9 ± 2.0 vs. 74.5 ± 2.1 in DM-SHAM]. Systolic and diastolic chamber dimensions were increased without concomitant increase in wall thickness and thus, wall tension index [WTI, the ratio of (Left Ventricular Internal Diameter at diastole)/2*(Posterior Wall thickness)], an index of wall stress, was found to be significantly increased in DM-AMI; 2.27 ± 0.08 versus 1.70 ± 0.05. 2D-Strain echocardiographic analysis showed reduced systolic radial strain in all segments, indicating increased loss of cardiac myocytes in the infarct related area and less compensatory hypertrophy in the viable segments. This response was accompanied by a marked decrease in the expression of TRα1 and TRß1 receptors in the diabetic myocardium without changes in circulating T3 and T4. Accordingly, the expression of TH target genes related to cardiac contractility was altered; ß-MHC and PKCα were significantly increased. TH (L-T4 and L-T3) administration prevented these changes and resulted in increased EF%, normal wall stress and increased systolic radial strain in all myocardial segments. Acute myocardial infarction in diabetic rats results in TH receptor down-regulation with important physiological consequences. TH treatment prevents this response and improves cardiac hemodynamics.

Generation of Novel Genetic Models to Dissect Resistance to Thyroid Hormone Receptor α in Zebrafish.

Background: Patients with mutations of the thyroid hormone receptor alpha (THRA) gene show resistance to thyroid hormone alpha (RTHα). No amendable mouse models are currently available to elucidate deleterious effects of TRα1 mutants during early development. Zebrafish with transient suppressed expression by morpholino knockdown and ectopic expression of TRα1 mutants in the embryos have been reported. However, zebrafish with germline transmittable mutations have not been reported. The stable expression of thra mutants from embryos to adulthood facilitated the study of molecular actions of TRα1 mutants during development. Methods: In contrast to human and mice, the thra gene is duplicated in zebrafish, thraa, and thrab. Using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis, we created dominant negative mutations in the two duplicated thra genes. We comprehensively analyzed the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of mutant fish during development. Results: Adult and juvenile homozygous thrab 1-bp ins (m/m) mutants exhibited severe growth retardation, but adult homozygous thraa 8-bp ins (m/m) mutants had very mild growth impairment. Expression of the growth hormone (gh1) and insulin-like growth factor 1 was markedly suppressed in homozygous thrab 1-bp ins (m/m) mutants. Decreased messenger RNA and protein levels of triiodothyronine-regulated keratin genes and inhibited keratinocyte proliferation resulted in hypoplasia of the epidermis in adult and juvenile homozygous thrab 1-bp ins (m/m) mutants, but not homozygous thraa 8-bp ins (m/m) mutants. RNA-seq analysis showed that homozygous thrab 1-bp ins (m/m) mutation had global impact on the functions of the adult pituitary. However, no morphological defects nor any changes in the expression of gh1 and keratin genes were observed in the embryos and early larvae. Thus, mutations of either the thraa or thrab gene did not affect initiation of embryogenesis. But the mutation of the thrab gene, but not the thraa gene, is detrimental in postlarval growth and skin development. Conclusions: The thra duplicated genes are essential to control temporal coordination in postlarval growth and development in a tissue-specific manner. We uncovered novel functions of the duplicated thra genes in zebrafish in development. These mutant zebrafish could be used as a model for further analysis of TRα1 mutant actions and for rapid screening of therapeutics for RTHα.

Metabolomic Profiling of Body Fluids in Mouse Models Demonstrates that Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Is a Putative Diagnostic Tool for the Presence of Thyroid Hormone Receptor α1 Mutations.

Background: Resistance to thyroid hormone alpha (RTHα) is a rare genetic disease due to mutations in the THRA gene, which encodes thyroid hormone receptor alpha 1 (TRα1). Since its first description in 2012, 46 cases of RTHα have been reported worldwide, corresponding to 26 different mutations of TRα1. RTHα patients share some common symptoms with hypothyroid patients, without significant reduction in thyroid hormone level. The high variability of clinical features and the absence of reliable biochemical markers make the diagnosis of this disease difficult. Some of these mutations have been recently modeled in mice. Methods: In our study, we used four different mouse models heterozygous for frameshift mutations in the Thra gene. Two of them are very close to human mutations, while the two others have not yet been found in patients. We characterized the metabolic phenotypes of urine and plasma samples collected from these four animal models using an untargeted nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomic approach. Results: Multivariate statistical analysis of the metabolomic profiles shows that biofluids of mice that carry human-like mutations can be discriminated from controls. Metabolic signatures associated with Thra mutations in urine and plasma are stable over time and clearly differ from the metabolic fingerprint of hypothyroidism in the mouse. Conclusion: Our results provide a proof-of-principle that easily accessible NMR-based metabolic fingerprints of biofluids could be used to diagnose RTHα in humans.