Risks and implications for health and the environment associated with products and waste containing nanomaterials: regulatory and management issues in the European framework.

SUMMARY: Nanomaterials can revolutionize everyday products, but there are still many unanswered questions about the risks they may pose to human health and the environment. Inconsistent definitions and metrological issues are still of concern for manufacturers, importers and distributors who are demanded to comply with strict regulations. It is also likely that the increasing number of nanomaterial-containing products available on the market will vary the chemical and physical properties of the waste produced, which is currently treated in traditional plants without any particular differentiation. Treatment efficiency for nanomaterials-containing waste should then be addressed and the risks of uncontrolled emissions considered. Finally, the risks associated with the use of nanomaterials-containing products may not be sufficiently characterized as current exposure estimation models are not designed for estimating exposure to nanomaterials and they are likely to be affected by large uncertainties. Hence, it would be important for national and international institutions to provide, as soon as possible, harmonized regulations covering all aspects of the life cycle of products and waste containing nanomaterials. This paper is proposed as a starting point for reflection on the main regulatory and management issues associated with products and waste containing nanomaterials, focusing mainly on the European framework.

Trends in potentially abused medications returned during medication take-back days.

OBJECTIVE: To observe rates of returns and to identify trends in returns of potentially abused medications during medication take-back events. METHODS: A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted of returned medications during medication take-back days from 2013 to 2016 based on a partnership between local law enforcement and a school of pharmacy in a rural South Carolina town. Data collected on returned items included active ingredients, estimated quantity, and prescription fill date if available. The medications were classified by therapeutic class and further identified drugs of potential abuse according to National Institute of Drug Abuse classifications. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data collected. RESULTS: In 2013, 742 different medications were returned, and 64 (8.63%) were potential drugs of abuse. In the years 2014-2016, 117 (11.43%) returned medications were potential drugs of abuse. In 2017, 40 (13.27%) returned medications were potentially abused drugs. Opioid analgesics were the most common potentially abused medication returned, accounting for 51.6%, 62.4%, and 65% of potentially abused medications returned in 2013, 2014-2016, and 2017, respectively. The other most common potentially abused returned medications were benzodiazepines (10.9%, 12.8%, 7.5%). The return of hypnotic medications increased over the study period from 0% in 2013 to 12.5% of potentially abused medications in 2017. The return of other medications such as loperamide and dextromethorphan varied over the study period. CONCLUSION: The rate of potentially abused medications returned steadily rose over the period of the study. Heightened awareness and increased opportunities for proper disposal including the placement of permanent drug disposal locations may account for the decreased number of prescriptions returned following 2013.

Standardized characterization procedures: a necessary support to regulations.

Sustainable procedures for sludge/biosolids management require the development of strategies to reduce the amount of sludge to be handled and to produce higher quality biosolids. Therefore, realistic and enforceable regulations adapted to local situations must be developed, defined outlet procedures established and good quality products guaranteed. To this end, the definition of standardized characterization procedures and guidelines for good practices becomes a necessary support to regulations. To contribute to the development of the EU directives dealing with sludge, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) has established Technical Committee 308 (TC 308) whose scope is the standardization of methods for sludge characterization and the production of guidelines of good practice. In this paper, the most recent developments of the CEN/TC 308 work for the chemical, biological and physical characterization of sludge/biosolids are discussed in relation to the main different treatment and outlet options.

Determination of the knowledge of e-waste disposal impacts on the environment among different gender and age groups in China, Laos, and Thailand.

E-waste is the fastest growing waste in the solid waste stream in the urban environment. It has become a widely recognised social and environmental problem; therefore, proper management is vital to protecting the fragile environment from its improper disposal. Questionnaire surveys were conducted to determine the knowledge of environmental impacts of e-waste disposal as it relates to mobile phones among different gender and age groups in China, Laos, and Thailand. The results revealed that gender was positively correlated with their knowledge of the status of environmental conditions (P104) (r = 0.077, n = 1994, p < 0.01) and negatively correlated with their knowledge of how to improve environmental conditions (P105) (r = -0.067, n = 2037, p < 0.01). In addition, an increase in age was positively correlated with respondents' concern over the environmental conditions (P103) (r = 0.052, n = 2077, p < 0.05) and P105 (r = 0.061, n = 2061, p < 0.01) mentioned above. The results indicated that female respondents were less knowledgeable about how to improve environmental conditions than male respondents in the three countries. Knowledge gaps were detected in the respondents, at age ⩽17, in the three countries, and from age 18-22 to 36-45 or older from Thailand and China, on their knowledge of the existing e-waste-related laws. Thus, an effort to bridge the gaps through initiating proper educational programmes in these two countries is necessary.

Assessment of collection schemes for packaging and other recyclable waste in European Union-28 Member States and capital cities.

The Waste Framework Directive obliged European Union Member States to set up separate collection systems to promote high quality recycling for at least paper, metal, plastic and glass by 2015. As implementation of the requirement varies across European Union Member States, the European Commission contracted BiPRO GmbH/Copenhagen Resource Institute to assess the separate collection schemes in the 28 European Union Member States, focusing on capital cities and on metal, plastic, glass (with packaging as the main source), paper/cardboard and bio-waste. The study includes an assessment of the legal framework for, and the practical implementation of, collection systems in the European Union-28 Member States and an in depth-analysis of systems applied in all capital cities. It covers collection systems that collect one or more of the five waste streams separately from residual waste/mixed municipal waste at source (including strict separation, co-mingled systems, door-to-door, bring-point collection and civic amenity sites). A scoreboard including 13 indicators is elaborated in order to measure the performance of the systems with the capture rates as key indicators to identify best performers. Best performance are by the cities of Ljubljana, Helsinki and Tallinn, leading to the key conclusion that door-to-door collection, at least for paper and bio-waste, and the implementation of pay-as-you-throw schemes results in high capture and thus high recycling rates of packaging and other municipal waste.

Management of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Romania: A mini-review.

Around the world there are growing concerns for waste electrical and electronic equipment. This is motivated by the harmful effects of waste electrical and electronic equipment on the environment, but also by the perspectives of materials recovery. Differences between countries regarding waste electrical and electronic equipment management are notable in the European Union. Romania is among the countries that have made significant efforts to comply with European Union regulations, but failed reaching the collection target. The article presents a mini review of the waste electrical and electronic equipment management system in Romania, based on legislation and policy documents, statistical data, research studies and reports published by national and international organisations. The article debates subjects like legislative framework, the electrical and electronic equipment Romanian market, the waste electrical and electronic equipment collection system, waste electrical and electronic equipment processing and waste electrical and electronic equipment behaviour. The recast of the European directive brings new challenges to national authorities and to other stakeholders involved in the waste electrical and electronic equipment management. Considering the fact that Romania has managed a collection rate of roughly 1 kg capita(-1) in the last years, the new higher collection targets established by the waste electrical and electronic equipment Directive offer a serious challenge for the management system. Therefore, another aim of the article is to highlight the positive and negative aspects in the Romanian waste electrical and electronic equipment field, in order to identify the flows that should be corrected and the opportunities that could help improve this system to the point of meeting the European standards imposed by the European Directive.

Equitable fund allocation, an economical approach for sustainable waste load allocation.

This research aims to study a novel approach for waste load allocation (WLA) to meet environmental, economical, and equity objectives, simultaneously. For this purpose, based on a simulation-optimization model developed for Haraz River in north of Iran, the waste loads are allocated according to discharge permit market. The non-dominated solutions are initially achieved through multiobjective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO). Here, the violation of environmental standards based on dissolved oxygen (DO) versus biochemical oxidation demand (BOD) removal costs is minimized to find economical total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). This can save 41% in total abatement costs in comparison with the conventional command and control policy. The BOD discharge permit market then increases the revenues to 45%. This framework ensures that the environmental limits are fulfilled but the inequity index is rather high (about 4.65). For instance, the discharge permit buyer may not be satisfied about the equity of WLA. Consequently, it is recommended that a third party or institution should be in charge of reallocating the funds. It means that the polluters which gain benefits by unfair discharges should pay taxes (or funds) to compensate the losses of other polluters. This intends to reduce the costs below the required values of the lowest inequity index condition. These compensations of equitable fund allocation (EFA) may help to reduce the dissatisfactions and develop WLA policies. It is concluded that EFA in integration with water quality trading (WQT) is a promising approach to meet the objectives.

Disposal of controlled substances. Final rule.

This rule governs the secure disposal of controlled substances by registrants and ultimate users. These regulations will implement the Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act of 2010 by expanding the options available to collect controlled substances from ultimate users for the purpose of disposal, including: Take-back events, mail-back programs, and collection receptacle locations. These regulations contain specific language allowing law enforcement to voluntarily continue to conduct take-back events, administer mail-back programs, and maintain collection receptacles. These regulations will allow authorized manufacturers, distributors, reverse distributors, narcotic treatment programs (NTPs), hospitals/clinics with an on-site pharmacy, and retail pharmacies to voluntarily administer mail-back programs and maintain collection receptacles. In addition, this rule expands the authority of authorized hospitals/clinics and retail pharmacies to voluntarily maintain collection receptacles at long-term care facilities. This rule also reorganizes and consolidates previously existing regulations on disposal, including the role of reverse distributors.

The challenges for solid waste management in accordance with Agenda 21: a Brazilian case review.

This paper aims to evaluate the suitability of the Brazilian solid waste policy (BSWP) with global Agenda 21 and the challenges of implementing the BSWP in municipalities. For this, a review of the principles that guided the creation of this policy was performed to demonstrate that international pressures were important in determining its effectiveness. The contradictory relationship between the satisfactory legal framework that established the Brazilian waste management policy and its weakened implementation in the municipalities is also examined . To illustrate the difficulties faced at the local level, a case study involving municipalities that compose the state of Espírito Santowe was undertaken. In this state, the municipalities signed terms of environmental commitment with supervisory agencies who undertook, within a pre-established schedule, to implement a set of actions to shape the proper management of solid waste, adapted to the requirements of national policy and the guidelines of Agenda 21. Finally, the various difficulties in meeting the requirements are discussed. It is necessary and urgent that Brazil finds a way to coordinate the mechanisms of an innovative and well formulated legal instrument to ensure the successful implementation of solid waste management at the local level to achieve the environmental, economic and social objectives.

[Approaches of European and Russian legislation in the field of management of medical waste].

A comparative analysis of Russian and European legislation concerning to the waste management has been performed. There were revealed principal differences in Russian and European legislation in methodology of the waste classification. In Europe, there is no methodology for breaking up waste into hazard classes, and for the denomination of the danger there are used hazard lists which fail to give information about the extent of their danger. Medical waste in the European legislation are not selected into the separate category as being included in terms of articles and lists in the annexes to the directives or other legal acts. There are considered requirements of the Russian and European legislation in the area of the landfill waste burial. In the frameworks of the proposals for the implementation of international experience in the waste management there was drafted the project of Sanitary rules on hygiene requirements to the arrangement and the contents of landfills for residential solid waste, which includes requirements concerning not only residential solid waste, but also medical waste.

The potential impact of the new 'Right to Repair' rules on electrical and electronic equipment waste: A case study of the UK.

Every year an estimated two million tonnes of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are discarded by householders and companies in the United Kingdom (UK). While the UK has left the European Union (EU), its waste-related policies still mirror those of the EU, including the WEEE-related policies. Motivated by the recent introduction the so-called 'Right to Repair' policy for electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) across the EU and UK, this paper aims to demonstrate that, depending on the commitment and behavioural changes by the consumers and the government, the future of the WEEE management of the UK will vary. To this end, focusing on landfilled WEEE reduction we develop a generic system dynamics model and apply it to eleven WEEE categories. They depict the flow of EEE and WEEE representing the interaction among the stakeholders (e.g., consumers and producers of EEE) and relevant government regulations of the UK. Our four scenario analyses find that longer use of EEE and better WEEE collection seem to be effective in reducing landfilled WEEE, while more reuse and more recycling and recovery have negligible impacts, despite excluding the additional generation of landfilled WEEE as a result of recycling and recovery. Comparing with the business-as-usual scenario, one year longer EEE use and 10% more of WEEE collection could at maximum reduce landfilled WEEE by 14.05% of monitoring and control instruments and 93.93% of display equipment respectively. Backcasting scenario analyses reveal that significant efforts are required to reduce the targeted amounts.

Geochemical survey of an illegal waste disposal site under a waste emergency scenario (Northwest Naples, Italy).

Since the mid 1980s, Naples and the Campania region have suffered from the dumping of wastes into overfilled landfills. The aim was to characterise a former cave located in Roccarainola (Naples, Italy) for its eventual destination to a controlled landfill site. A detailed hydro-geochemical survey of the area was carried out through drilling of 14 boreholes and four monitoring wells. Samples of water, sediment and soil were analysed for heavy metals and organic contaminants from a dew pond placed in the middle of the cave. The underneath aquifer was also surveyed. The nature of gases emitted from the site was investigated. Results of the geognostic survey revealed the presence of huge volumes of composite wastes, approximately half a million of cubic metre, which accumulated up to a thickness of 25.6 m. In some points, wastes lie below the free surface level of the aquifer. The sampled material from the boreholes revealed levels of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Sn, Tl and Zn exceeding the intervention legal limits. Outstanding loads of Cd, Pb and Zn were found, with levels exceeding of about 50, 100 and 1,870 times the limit. In several points, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon load was extremely high, 35 vs 1 mg kg(-1) of the threshold. The aquifer was also very heavily polluted by Cd, Cr-tot, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn, with impressive high load of Cr and Mn, up to 250-370 times the limits. Hot gases up to 62 °C with presence of xylene and ethylbenzene were found. Results indicated that the site needs an urgent intervention of recovery to avoid compromising the surrounding areas and aquifers of the Campania plain.

Mercury in municipal solid waste in China and its control: a review.

Although a potentially significant and preventable source of environmental pollution, mercury in municipal solid waste (MSW) has not received adequate attention in China. Discarded mercury-containing products, if not recycled, ultimately release mercury to air, soil, and groundwater, even after being properly collected and disposed of in MSW management facilities. This review presents an overview on mercury in MSW and describes the emissions associated with landfilling, incineration, and composting in China. Besides end-of-pipe technologies for controlling mercury emissions from MSW management, strategies for controlling mercury in MSW are also discussed, focusing on mercury source reduction and recycling. Batteries and fluorescent lamps contribute to approximately three-quarters of mercury in MSW, and are expected to remain as significant sources of mercury in the near future. Reducing or eliminating the mercury contents in household products, particularly batteries and fluorescent lamps, should be the top priority in controlling mercury in MSW, while it is also important to set mercury contents in consumer products at acceptable and achievable levels based on a life-cycle approach. Meanwhile, cost-effective recycling programs should be developed targeting products containing elemental mercury, such as medical thermometers and sphygmomanometers, and waste products with high mercury contents (e.g., button cells) as well.

RoHS regulated substances in mixed plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment.

The disposal and recovery of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are of considerable importance, both from an environmental and an economic perspective. This paper presents the results of a study investigating current concentrations of hazardous substances in mixed plastics from WEEE and their implications for an environmentally sound recovery. The study included 53 sampling campaigns for mixed plastics from WEEE. The samples were analyzed with regard to heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, mercury, and lead) and flame retardants (PentaBDE, OctaBDE, DecaBDE, DecaBB) regulated in the RoHS Directive. Besides these substances, other brominated flame retardants known to occur in electronics (HBCD, TBBPA) as well as the total bromine and phosphorus contents were considered. Results show that no mixed plastics fraction from WEEE is completely free from substances regulated in the RoHS Directive. The lowest number and average concentrations were found in flat screen monitors. The highest concentrations were found in mixed plastics from CRT monitors and TVs. Mixed plastics fractions with high average concentrations of heavy metals originate from the treatment of small household appliances (cadmium), ICT equipment (lead), and consumer equipment (lead). Mixed plastics fractions with high average concentrations of brominated flame retardants mainly originate from the treatment of small household appliances for high temperature applications (DecaBDE), CRT monitors (OctaBDE and DecaBDE) and consumer equipment (DecaBDE), in particular CRT TVs (DecaBDE). To avoid a dissipation of hazardous substances into plastics and the environment, it is recommended that mixed plastics from WEEE are subject to a strict quality management.

Quality standards and requirements for solid recovered fuels: a review.

The utilization of solid recovered fuels (SRF) for energy recovery has been increasing steadily in recent years, and this development is set to continue. In order to use SRF efficiently, it is necessary to define quality standards and introduce targeted quality assurance measures. SRF can be used both in mono-incineration and in co-incineration systems, for instance in power generation and cement plants; but as quality requirements differ, it is necessary to unambiguously define the term 'solid recovered fuel'. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the origin, development and the current status of quality assurance for SRF. The basic principles of quality assurance for SRF are explained with reference to the development of the German RAL Quality Assurance System and in addition specifications that have emerged from European standardization work of CEN/TC 343 are analysed.

E-waste management challenges in Iran: presenting some strategies for improvement of current conditions.

E-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams in Iran, owing to an increase in consumption of electrical and electronic equipment. Nevertheless, as is the case in some other countries, E-waste management has not received sufficient attention. For the successful implementation of any waste management plan (including an E-waste management plan), the availability of sufficient and accurate information on the quantities and composition of the waste generated and on current management conditions is a fundamental prerequisite. At present, in Iran, there is no available and accurate information that describes the characteristics and generation rate of E-waste or the actual practice of management and handling of the waste. For this initial study, eight electronic products were selected for the determination of their E-waste generation rate in the country, and two cities, Tehran and Tabriz, were selected for assessment of the current condition of E-waste management. The study found that the amount of E-waste generation in the country for the eight selected electronic items alone was 115,286, 112,914 and 115,151 metric tons in 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively. Of the types of electronic items included in the study, televisions, with an average of 42.42%, and PCs, with an average of 32.66% accounted for the greatest proportions of the total mass of E-waste generated during 2008-2010. Currently, despite the fact that primary legislation for E-waste management (as part of general waste legislation) exists in Iran, this primary legislation has not yet been implemented. In practical terms, there is no definite policy or plan for the allocation of funds to prepare suitable equipment and facilities for the management and recycling of E-waste at the end of the products' useful life. Proposed improvements in current conditions are identified, first by considering other countries' experiences and then suggesting specific practical policies, rules, and regulations that should be established and applied to all levels of E-waste management. One of the most attractive E-waste management policies is an extended producer responsibility (EPR) programme in combination with a training programme at different levels of society. An approach consisting of a mandated product take back is proposed for implementing EPR in Iran. Meanwhile, the Health Ministry and the Environmental Protection Agency should strictly supervise E-waste collection, storage, and recycling and/or disposal, and the Trade and Industry Ministries must have more control over the import and production of electronic goods.

Comparative analysis of solid waste management in 20 cities.

This paper uses the 'lens' of integrated and sustainable waste management (ISWM) to analyse the new data set compiled on 20 cities in six continents for the UN-Habitat flagship publication Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities. The comparative analysis looks first at waste generation rates and waste composition data. A process flow diagram is prepared for each city, as a powerful tool for representing the solid waste system as a whole in a comprehensive but concise way. Benchmark indicators are presented and compared for the three key physical components/drivers: public health and collection; environment and disposal; and resource recovery--and for three governance strategies required to deliver a well-functioning ISWM system: inclusivity; financial sustainability; and sound institutions and pro-active policies. Key insights include the variety and diversity of successful models - there is no 'one size fits all'; the necessity of good, reliable data; the importance of focusing on governance as well as technology; and the need to build on the existing strengths of the city. An example of the latter is the critical role of the informal sector in the cities in many developing countries: it not only delivers recycling rates that are comparable with modern Western systems, but also saves the city authorities millions of dollars in avoided waste collection and disposal costs. This provides the opportunity for win-win solutions, so long as the related wider challenges can be addressed.