Promising tacrine/huperzine A-based dimeric acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for neurodegenerative disorders: From relieving symptoms to modifying diseases through multitarget.

Neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, are devastating diseases in the elderly world, which are closely associated with progressive neuronal loss induced by a variety of genetic and/or environmental factors. Unfortunately, currently available treatments for neurodegenerative disorders can only relieve the symptoms but not modify the pathological processes. Over the past decades, our group by collaborating with Profs. Yuan-Ping Pang and Paul R. Carlier has developed three series of homo/hetero dimeric acetylcholinesterase inhibitors derived from tacrine and/or huperzine A. The representative dimers bis(3)-Cognitin (B3C), bis(12)-hupyridone, and tacrine(10)-hupyridone might possess disease-modifying effects through the modulation of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptors, the activation of myocyte enhancer factor 2D gene transcription, and the promotion of neurotrophic factor secretion. In this review, we summarize that the representative dimers, such as B3C, provide neuroprotection against a variety of neurotoxins via multiple targets, including the inhibitions of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor with pathological-activated potential, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, and ß-amyloid cascades synergistically. More importantly, B3C might offer disease-modifying potentials by activating myocyte enhancer factor 2D transcription, inducing neuritogenesis, and promoting the expressions of neurotrophic factors in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, the novel dimers might offer synergistic disease-modifying effects, proving that dimerization might serve as one of the strategies to develop new generation of therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders.

Tacrine and its 7-methoxy derivate; time-change concentration in plasma and brain tissue and basic toxicological profile in rats.

The search for tacrine derivatives, as potential Alzheimer´s disease treatment, is still being at the forefront of scientific efforts. 7-MEOTA was found to be a potent, centrally active acetylcholinesterase inhibitor free of the serious side effects observed for tacrine. Unfortunately, a relevant argumentation about pharmacokinetics and potential toxicity is incomplete; information about tacrine derivatives absorption and especially CNS penetration are still rare as well as detailed toxicological profile in vivo. Although the structural changes between these compounds are not so distinctive, differences in plasma profile and CNS targeting were found. The maximum plasma concentration were attained at 18th min (tacrine; 38.20 ± 3.91 ng/ml and 7-MEOTA; 88.22 ± 15.19 ng/ml) after i.m. application in rats. Although the brain profiles seem to be similar; tacrine achieved 19.34 ± 0.71 ng/ml in 27 min and 7-MEOTA 15.80 ± 1.13 ng/ml in 22 min; the tacrine Kp (AUCbrain/AUCplasma) fit 1.20 and was significantly higher than 7-MEOTA Kp 0.10. Administration of tacrine and 7-MEOTA showed only mild elevation of some biochemical markers following single p.o. application in 24 hours and 7 days. Also histopathology revealed only mild-to-moderate changes following repeated p.o. administration for 14 days. It seems that small change in tacrine molecule leads to lower ability to penetrate through the biological barriers. The explanation that lower p.o. acute toxicity of 7-MEOTA depends only on differences in metabolic pathways may be now revised to newly described differences in pharmacokinetic and toxicological profiles.

Combined Pre- and Posttreatment of Paraoxon Exposure.

AIMS: Organophosphates (OPCs), useful agents as pesticides, also represent a serious health hazard. Standard therapy with atropine and established oxime-type enzyme reactivators is unsatisfactory. Experimental data indicate that superior therapeutic results can be obtained when reversible cholinesterase inhibitors are administered before OPC exposure. Comparing the protective efficacy of five such cholinesterase inhibitors (physostigmine, pyridostigmine, ranitidine, tacrine, or K-27), we observed best protection for the experimental oxime K-27. The present study was undertaken in order to determine if additional administration of K-27 immediately after OPC (paraoxon) exposure can improve the outcome. METHODS: Therapeutic efficacy was assessed in rats by determining the relative risk of death (RR) by Cox survival analysis over a period of 48 h. Animals that received only pretreatment and paraoxon were compared with those that had received pretreatment and paraoxon followed by K-27 immediately after paraoxon exposure. RESULTS: Best protection from paraoxon-induced mortality was observed after pretreatment with physostigmine (RR = 0.30) and K-27 (RR = 0.34). Both substances were significantly more efficacious than tacrine (RR = 0.67), ranitidine (RR = 0.72), and pyridostigmine (RR = 0.76), which were less efficacious but still significantly reduced the RR compared to the no-treatment group (paraoxon only). Additional administration of K-27 immediately after paraoxon exposure (posttreatment) did not further reduce mortality. Statistical analysis between pretreatment before paraoxon exposure alone and pretreatment plus K-27 posttreatment did not show any significant difference for any of the pretreatment regimens. CONCLUSIONS: Best outcome is achieved if physostigmine or K-27 are administered prophylactically before exposure to sublethal paraoxon dosages. Therapeutic outcome is not further improved by additional oxime therapy immediately thereafter.

Combined Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease: Tacrine and PAMAM Dendrimers Co-Administration Reduces the Side Effects of the Drug without Modifying its Activity.

Alzheimer's disease has become a public health priority, so an investigation of new therapies is required. Tacrine (TAC) was licensed for treatments; however, its oral administration caused hepatotoxicity, so it is essential to reduce the side effects. PAMAM dendrimer generation 4.0 and 4.5 (DG4.0 and DG4.5) can be used as drug delivery systems and as nanodrugs per se. Our work aims to propose a combined therapy based on TAC and PAMAM dendrimer co-administration. TAC and dendrimer interactions were studied by in vitro drug release, drug stability, and FTIR. The toxicity profile of co-administration was evaluated in human red blood cells, in Neuro-2a cell culture, and in zebrafish larvae. Also, the anti-acetylcholinesterase activity was studied in cell culture. It was possible to obtain DG4.0-TAC and DG4.5-TAC suspensions, without reducing the drug solubility and stability. FTIR and in vitro release studies confirmed that interaction between TAC and DG4.5 was of the electrostatic type. No toxicity effects on human red blood cells were observed, whereas the co-administration with DG4.5 reduced cytotoxicity of TAC on the Neuro-2a cell line. Moreover, in vivo co-administration of both DG4.0-TAC and DG4.5-TAC reduced the morphological and hepatotoxic effects of TAC in zebrafish larvae. The reduction of TAC toxicity was not accompanied by a reduction in its activity since the anti-acetylcholinesterase activity remains when it is co-administrated with dendrimers. In conclusion, the co-administration of TAC with both DG4.0 and DG4.5 is a novel therapy since it was less-toxic, was more biocompatible, and has the same effectiveness than the free drug. Graphical abstract.

Application of design of experiments for formulation development and mechanistic evaluation of iontophoretic tacrine hydrochloride delivery.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this investigation is to develop mathematical equation to understand the impact of variables and establish statistical control over transdermal iontophoretic delivery of tacrine hydrochloride. In addition, possibility of using conductivity measurements as a tool of predicting ionic mobility of the participating ions for the application of iontophoretic delivery was explored. METHODS: Central composite design was applied to study effect of independent variables like current strength, buffer molarity, and drug concentration on iontophoretic tacrine permeation flux. Molar conductivity was determined to evaluate electro-migration of tacrine ions with application of Kohlrausch's law. RESULTS: The developed mathematic equation not only reveals drug concentration as the most significant variable regulating tacrine permeation, followed by current strength and buffer molarity, but also is capable to optimize tacrine permeation with respective combination of independent variables to achieve desired therapeutic plasma concentration of tacrine in treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Moreover, relative higher mobility of sodium and chloride ions was observed as compared to estimated tacrine ion mobility. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation utilizes the design of experiment approach and extends the primary understanding of imapct of electronic and formulation variables on the tacrine permeation for the formulation development of iontophoretic tacrine delivery.

Cholinergic properties of new 7-methoxytacrine-donepezil derivatives.

Organophosphorus nerve agents inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which causes the breakdown of the transmitter acetylcholine (ACh) in the synaptic cleft. Overstimulation of cholinergic receptors (muscarinic and nicotinic) by excessive amounts of ACh causes several health problems and may even cause death. Reversible AChE inhibitors play an important role in prophylaxis against nerve agents. The presented study investigated whether 7-methoxytacrine (7-MEOTA) and 7-MEOTA-donepezil derivatives can act as central and peripheral reversible AChE inhibitors and simultaneously antagonize muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. The possible mechanism of action was studied on cell cultures (patch clamp technique, calcium mobilization assay) and on isolated smooth muscle tissue (contraction study). Furthermore, the kinetics of the compounds were also examined. CNS availability was predicted by determining the passive blood-brain barrier penetration estimated via a modified PAMPA assay. In conclusion, this study provides promising evidence that the new synthesized 7-MEOTA-donepezil derivatives have the desired anticholinergic effect; they can inhibit AChE, and nicotinic and muscarinic receptors in the micromolar range. Furthermore, they seem to penetrate readily into the CNS. However, their real potency and benefit must be verified by in vivo experiments.

Influence of electronic and formulation variables on transdermal iontophoresis of tacrine hydrochloride.

Freshly excised rat skin and side-by-side permeation cells were used to study the effect of electronic and formulation variables on transdermal iontophoretic delivery of tacrine. Current strength at 0.1-0.3 mA was observed to be the driving force resulting in tacrine permation flux of 30.3-366.6 µg/cm(2)/h. Depot formation of tacrine and altered skin permeability resulted in post iontophoretic flux even after termination of applied current. Increase in the duration of current application did not show significant difference in tacrine permeation flux upto 6 h. Tacrine permeation was directly proportional to tacrine concentration upto 10 mg/ml but further increase in concentration (upto 20 mg/ml) exhibited permeation flux plateau. Buffer molarity had an inverse relationship on permeation flux and the presence of co-ions in formulation exhibited reduced permeation flux. Permeation flux decreased when pH of formulation was successively increased from 7.0 to 10.0 suggesting electromigration of tacrine. Alternate buffer systems including HEPES and Tris showed improved tacrine permeation due to their larger ion size compared to phosphate buffer ions. The results of this study show that transdermal tacrine permeation can be controlled by electronic and formulation variables which would be useful for the development of transdermal iontophoretic delivery of tacrine for the treatment of Alzehimer's disease.

Pharmacokinetic comparison between the long-term anesthetized, short-term anesthetized and conscious rat models in nasal drug delivery.

PURPOSE: To investigate the pharmacokinetic differences between the common nasal delivery models. METHODS: In three different rat models [long-term anesthetized (with nasal surgery), short-term anesthetized (without nasal surgery) and conscious models], tacrine and loxapine were administered via nasal, intravenous and oral routes, and the plasma pharmacokinetics were compared among different models. RESULTS: Systemic exposures of both drugs and their metabolites were consistently higher in long-term anesthetized model after all routes of administration in comparison to that of conscious model. Nasal bioavailabilities in long-term anesthetized model (tacrine 83%, loxapine 97%) were much higher than that in conscious model (tacrine 10%, loxapine 46%). Further studies on tacrine and its metabolites demonstrated no significant difference in t1/2 between short-term anesthetized and conscious models after all routes of administration; however, long-term anesthetized model showed significantly longer t1/2. Regarding the pharmacokinetic parameters (Cmax, Tmax, AUC, bioavailability) of tacrine and its metabolites, short-term anesthetized model resembled closer to conscious model than long-term anesthetized model. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma clearances of tacrine, loxapine, and their metabolites were much slower in the long-term anesthetized model of nasal delivery probably due to suppressed hepatic and renal clearances, while the short-term anesthetized model imposed less impact on tacrine pharmacokinetics and metabolism.

Multifunctional liposomes for nasal delivery of the anti-Alzheimer drug tacrine hydrochloride.

The purpose of this study was the development of multifunctional liposomes for nasal administration of tacrine hydrochloride. Liposomes were prepared using traditional excipients (cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine), partly enriched with α-tocopherol and/or Omega3 fatty acids. This approach was chosen in order to obtain at the same time two positive results: an enhanced drug permeation through nasal mucosa and a concomitant neuroprotective effect. Several liposome formulations were prepared using the Reverse Phase Evaporation technique followed by membrane filter extrusion. In particular, liposome capacity to enhance drug permeation was evaluated by means of membrane permeation and cellular uptake studies. Furthermore, liposome effect on neuronal viability and intracellular ROS production was evaluated as well as their cytoprotective effect against oxidative stress. All liposome formulations showed a mean diameter in the range of 175 nm to 219 nm with polydispersity index lower than 0.22, a lightly negative zeta potential and excellent encapsulation efficiency. Moreover, along with good mucoadhesive properties, multifunctional liposomes showed a markedly increase in tacrine permeability, which can be related to liposome fusion with cellular membrane, a hypothesis, which was also supported by cellular uptake studies. Finally, the addition of α-tocopherol without Omega3 fatty acids, was found to increase the neuroprotective activity and antioxidant properties of liposomes.

Usefulness of administration of non-organophosphate cholinesterase inhibitors before acute exposure to organophosphates: assessment using paraoxon.

Reversible acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors can protect against the lethal effects of irreversible organophosphorus AChE inhibitors (OPCs), when administered before OPC exposure. We have assessed in vivo the mortality-reducing efficacy of a group of known AChE inhibitors, when given in equitoxic dosage before exposure to the OPC paraoxon. Protection was quantified in rats by determining the relative risk (RR) of death. Best in vivo protection from paraoxon-induced mortality was observed after prophylactic administration of physostigmine (RR = 0.30) or the oxime K-27 (RR = 0.34); both treatments were significantly superior to the pre-treatment with all other tested compounds, including the established substance pyridostigmine. Tacrine (RR = 0.67), ranitidine (RR = 0.72), pyridostigmine (RR = 0.76), tiapride (RR = 0.80) and 7-MEOTA (RR = 0.86) also significantly reduced the relative risk of paraoxon-induced death, but to a lesser degree. Methylene blue, amiloride and metoclopramide had an unfavorable effect (RR ≥ 1), significantly increasing mortality. When CNS penetration by prophylactic is undesirable K-27 is a promising alternative to pyridostigmine.

Mutagenicity and clastogenicity evaluation of tacrine by Ames and micronucleus assays.

Tacrine was evaluated for its mutagenic and clastogenic activities using the Ames bacterial reverse-mutation assay and the rodent bone marrow micronucleus assay. Tacrine was tested for mutagenic potential at six different concentrations, with 1,250 µg/plate as the highest concentration, followed by five lower concentrations with 2-fold spacing. In clastogenic evaluation, tacrine was administered orally to Wistar rats for 2 days at 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg body weights to assess micronucleus induction in bone marrow erythrocytes. In the Ames assay, tacrine showed nonmutagenicity in four tester strains of Salmonella typhimurium viz. TA98, TA100, TA102, and TA1535, but it was found to be mutagenic in the TA1537 tester strain, both in the presence and absence of a metabolic activation system. Tacrine was found to be nonclastogenic on bone marrow cells of rats at all doses tested and was found to be mutagenic in only the TA1537 strain of Salmonella.

Neuroprotective effects of bis(7)-tacrine against glutamate-induced retinal ganglion cells damage.

BACKGROUND: Glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, primarily through N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, may be an important cause of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) death in glaucoma and several other retinal diseases. Bis(7)-tacrine is a noncompetitive NMDA receptors antagonist that can prevent glutamate-induced hippocampal neurons damage. We tested the effects of bis(7)-tacrine against glutamate-induced rat RGCs damage in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: In cultured neonatal rats RGCs, the MTT assay showed that glutamate induced a concentration- and time-dependent toxicity. Bis(7)-tacrine and memantine prevented glutamate-induced cell death in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50 values of 0.028 microM and 0.834 microM, respectively. The anti-apoptosis effects of bis(7)-tacrine were confirmed by annexin V-FITC/PI staining. In vivo, TUNEL analysis and retrograde labeling analysis found that pretreatment with bis(7)-tacrine(0.2 mg/kg) induced a significant neuroprotective effect against glutamate-induced RGCs damage. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that bis(7)-tacrine had neuroprotective effects against glutamate-induced RGCs damage in vitro and in vivo, possibly through the drug's anti-NMDA receptor effects. These findings make bis(7)-tacrine potentially useful for treating a variety of ischemic or traumatic retinopathies inclusive of glaucoma.

Chitosan nanoparticles as a new delivery system for the anti-Alzheimer drug tacrine.

Tacrine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by spontaneous emulsification. The particle size and zeta potential was determined by scanning probe microscopy and Zetasizer, respectively. The prepared particles showed good drug-loading capacity. The in vitro release studies showed that after the initial burst, all the drug-loaded batches provided a continuous and slow release of the drug. Coating of nanoparticles with Polysorbate 80 slightly reduced the drug release from the nanoparticles. Release kinetics studies showed that the release of drug from nanoparticles was diffusion-controlled, and the mechanism of drug release was Fickian. The biodistribution of these particles after intravenous injection in rats showed that of nanoparticles coated with 1% Polysorbate 80 altered the biodistribution pattern of nanoparticles. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR: In this paper, chitosan nanoparticles are investigated in a pre-clinical study as an optimized delivery system for tacrin, a drug with potential significance in Alzheimer's disease. The preparation showed optimal pharmacokinetic characteristics in a rat model.

Significant delivery of tacrine into the brain using magnetic chitosan microparticles for treating Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive degenerative disorder of the brain characterized by a slow, progressive decline in cognitive function and behavior. As the disease advances, persons have a tough time with daily tasks like using the phone, cooking, handling money or driving the car. AD affects 15 million people worldwide and it has been estimated that AD affects 4.5 million Americans. Tacrine is a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor used for treating mild to moderate AD. In the present study, an attempt was made to target the anti-Alzheimer's drug tacrine in the brain by using magnetic chitosan microparticles. The magnetic chitosan microparticles were prepared by emulsion cross-linking. The formulated microparticles were characterized for process yield, drug loading capacity, particle size, in vitro release, release kinetics and magnetite content. The particle size was analyzed by scanning electron microscope. The magnetite content of the microparticles was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. For animal testing, the microparticles were injected intravenously after keeping a suitable magnet at the target region. The concentrations of tacrine at the target and non-target organs were analyzed by HPLC. The magnetic chitosan microparticles significantly increased the concentration of tacrine in the brain in comparison with the free drug.

Comparison studies of tacrine and bis7-tacrine on the suppression of scopolamine-induced behavioral changes and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in mice.

Effects of the cholinesterase inhibitors tacrine and bis(7)- tacrine (0.25-20 micromol/kg, s.c.) on locomotor activity and passive-avoidance response were investigated in mice treated with scopolamine (SCP, 1 or 5 micromol/kg, i.p.), using an open-field test and step-through task with a 24-hour retention interval. Drugs were given 30 min prior to the first session. During the acquisition session, SCP treatment increased the locomotor activity (10-16%). Tacrine, but not bis(7)-tacrine, cotreatment significantly reduced the locomotor activity by 23 or 27%, when compared with the SCP-treated control mice. In the step-through task, tacrine or bis(7)-tacrine coadministration dose-dependently attenuated the increase in the number of footshocks (by 50 or 58%) in SCP-treated mice. The lowest dose of tacrine and bis(7)-tacrine for prolonging the retention latency (up to 500%) in SCP-treated mice was 5 and 1 micromol/kg, respectively. Tacrine and bis(7)-tacrine inhibited brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity 15 min (but not 30 min) after the drug administration in mice. At the same dose of 20 micromol/kg, the bis(7)-tacrine-induced AChE inhibition in serum was 14-fold higher than that of tacrine. The results indicated that bis(7)-tacrine was less potent than tacrine in causing motor dysfunction. However, bis(7)-tacrine was more potent than tacrine in the cognitive enhancement of SCP-induced memory loss and in AChE inhibition.

Design and Development of Novel Transdermal Nanoemulgel for Alzheimer's Disease: Pharmacokinetic, Pharmacodynamic and Biochemical Investigations.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with depletion of acetylcholine. Oral treatment with tacrine hydrochloride; a reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase, finds limited use in Alzheimer's disease due to frequent dosing, hepatotoxicity and extensive pre-systemic metabolism. OBJECTIVES: The objective of the study was to evaluate pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, safety and stability profile of transdermal w/o nanoemulsion gel of tacrine hydrochloride and determine its relative bioavailability from transdermal nanogel in contrast to marketed capsule and conventional hydrogel. METHODS: The optimized nanoemulsion gel NEGT4 (droplet size 156.4 ±0.48 nm, with poly dispersity index 0.36 ±0.4, permeation flux 6.172±2.94 µg/cm2/h across rat skin) was prepared by spontaneous emulsification followed by sonication. NEGT4 contained 7 mg of drug in 10% w/w distilled water, 30% w/w surfactant (Labrafil M) and cosurfactant (Transcutol P) mixture in ratio 1:4 and 60 % Capryol 90 as oily phase thickened with 98.9 mg ethyl cellulose (20 cps). In vivo studies were carried out on male Wistar rats following standard guidelines. Scopolamine was used to induce amnesia in rats which is a characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. Various formulations were compared by performing pharmacokinetic, histopathological, behavioural and biochemical studies on rats. Stability studies on nanoemulsion gels were carried out in accordance with The International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) guidelines. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetic studies exhibited significantly greater extent of absorption from NEGT4 in comparison to capsule and hydrogel with a 2.18 and 5.26-fold increase respectively. Significant improvement in neurobehavioral parameters was observed with NEGT4 in scopolamine-induced amnesic rats. Biochemical assessment showed superior anti-amnesic activity of NEGT4 through augmentation of antioxidant enzymes, decreased lipid peroxidation and acetylcholinesterase activity. Low value of serum aminotransferase in rats treated with NEGT4 indicated the absence of hepatotoxicity. NEGT4 was found to be non-irritant and possessed a shelf life of 4.11 years. CONCLUSION: Developed nanoemulsion gel of tacrine hydrochloride was found to be safe, stable, and efficacious and has immense potential to be used in the therapy of Alzheimer's disease.

Molecular imaging identifies age-related attenuation of acetylcholine in retrosplenial cortex in response to acetylcholinesterase inhibition.

The neurotransmitter of the cholinergic system, acetylcholine plays a major role in the brain's cognitive function and is involved in neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we present age-related alterations of acetylcholine levels after administration of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor drug tacrine in normal mice. Using a quantitative, robust and molecular-specific mass spectrometry imaging method we found that tacrine administration significantly raised acetylcholine levels in most areas of sectioned mice brains, inter alia the striatum, hippocampus and cortical areas. However, acetylcholine levels in retrosplenial cortex were significantly lower in 14-month-old than in 12-week-old animals following its administration, indicating that normal aging affects the cholinergic system's responsivity. This small brain region is interconnected with an array of brain networks and is involved in numerous cognitive tasks. Simultaneous visualization of distributions of tacrine and its hydroxylated metabolites in the brain revealed a significant decrease in levels of the metabolites in the 14-month-old mice. The results highlight strengths of the imaging technique to simultaneously investigate multiple molecular species and the drug-target effects in specific regions of the brain. The proposed approach has high potential in studies of neuropathological conditions and responses to neuroactive treatments.

Substituted Aminobenzothiazole Derivatives of Tacrine: Synthesis and Study on Learning and Memory Impairment in Scopolamine-Induced Model of Amnesia in Rat.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there is no conclusive cure for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and existing treatments mainly offer symptomatic relief. Dysfunction of the cholinergic system plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. Tacrine (1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydroacridin-9-amine, III) was the first approved agent for the palliative therapy of AD but its use is associated with some complications. Development of novel multi target derivatives of Tacrine with lower complications is strongly warranted. In this study, new aminobenzothiazole (1-5, with many useful biological and pharmacological properties) analogues (IV-VIII) were synthesized by changing of amine moiety of III. Then, the effects of these new compounds on learning and memory impairment in scopolamine-induced model of amnesia were studied and the outcomes were compared with control and Tacrine groups in rat. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The rats received Tacrine or its derivatives (IV-VIII) i.p. for two weeks at a dose of 10 mg/kg. For induction of amnesia, scopolamine at a dose of 1 mg/kg was daily administered i.p. started on day-8 till the end of the study. Behavioral experiments including Y-maze, novel object recognition (discrimination) and passive avoidance paradigms were conducted at week 2. RESULTS: Data analysis showed that some Tacrine derivatives, especially VII with 2-amino, 6-nitrobenzothiazole moiety, could markedly and significantly improve alternation score, discrimination ratio and step through latency compared to control and Tacrine groups. CONCLUSION: These findings indicated that some of these derivatives (especially compounds VI and VII) are capable to mitigate learning and memory deficits in scopolamine-induced model of amnesia in rats and may have potential benefit in management of patients with AD.

Promising anti-Alzheimer's dimer bis(7)-tacrine reduces beta-amyloid generation by directly inhibiting BACE-1 activity.

The regulation of alpha-, beta-, (BACE-1), and gamma-secretase activities to alter beta-amyloid (Abeta) generation is considered to be one of the most promising disease-modifying therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease. In this study, the effect and mechanisms of bis(7)-tacrine (a promising anti-Alzheimer's dimer) on Abeta generation were investigated. Bis(7)-tacrine (0.1-3muM) substantially reduced the amounts of both secreted and intracellular Abeta in Neuro2a APPswe cells without altering the expression of APP. sAPPalpha and CTFalpha increased, while sAPPbeta and CTFbeta decreased significantly in Neuro2a APPswe cells following the treatment with bis(7)-tacrine, indicating that bis(7)-tacrine might activate alpha-secretase and/or inhibit BACE-1 activity. Furthermore, bis(7)-tacrine concentration-dependently inhibited BACE-1 activity in cultured cells, and also in recombinant human BACE-1 in a non-competitive manner with an IC(50) of 7.5muM, but did not directly affect activities of BACE-2, Cathepsin D, alpha- or gamma-secretase. Taken together, our results not only suggest that bis(7)-tacrine may reduce the biosynthesis of Abeta mainly by directly inhibiting BACE-1 activity, but also provide new insights into the rational design of novel anti-Alzheimer's dimers that might have disease-modifying properties.

Intranasal mucoadhesive microemulsion of tacrine to improve brain targeting.

The aim of the investigation was to prepare and characterize microemulsion/mucoadhesive microemulsion of tacrine (TME/TMME), assess its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic performances for brain targeting and for improvement in memory in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice. The TME was prepared by the titration method and characterized. Biodistribution of tacrine solution and formulations after intravenous and intranasal administrations were evaluated using 99m Tc as marker. From the data, the pharmacokinetic parameters, drug targeting efficiency, and direct nose-to-brain drug transport were calculated. To confirm drug localization in brain gamma scintigraphy in rabbits was performed. Lower Tmax values (60 min) after intranasal compared with intravenous administration (120 min) suggested selective nose-to-brain transport. The brain bioavailability of tacrine after intranasal TMME compared with intranasal tacrine solution was found to be 2-fold higher indicating larger extent of distribution of the drug to brain with intranasal TMME. Rabbit brain scintigraphy also showed higher uptake of drug into the brain after intranasal administration. The results demonstrated rapid and larger extent of transport of tacrine into the mice brain and fastest regain of memory loss in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice after intranasal TMME. Hence, results are suggestive of possible role of intranasal tacrine delivery in treating Alzheimer's patients.