Why does one trust? A 360-degree perspective on the role of position power in weighting trustworthiness factors.

The purpose of the current paper is to explore the influence of the perceived trustworthiness factors of ability, benevolence and integrity on general and specific trust across supervisors, subordinates and peers with the same focal referent. This study used a 360-degree approach to examine how positional power asymmetries influence the relationship between trustworthiness and trust for a general and situation-specific referent. Data were obtained from military supervisors (N = 200), peers (N = 123), and subordinates (N = 85). Measures of trustworthiness and trust of a common military officer were obtained. Supervisors and subordinates differed in their relative weighting of trustworthiness factors (i.e. ability, benevolence, and integrity) when evaluating general and specific trust. Peers evidenced no difference in the relative weighting of trustworthiness factors. The relationship between benevolence and specific trust was stronger for subordinates than for supervisors. One implication of our findings is that trust can develop differently in bottom-up versus top-down organizational relationships. This study provides evidence that supervisors and subordinates emphasize different aspects of trustworthiness when evaluating their trust of a focal officer, and this process was different for general versus specific trust referents. The study also extends previous research by replicating previous findings across raters.

Development and Validation of the System Trustworthiness Scale.

OBJECTIVE: We created and validated a scale to measure perceptions of system trustworthiness. BACKGROUND: Several scales exist in the literature that attempt to assess trustworthiness of system referents. However, existing measures suffer from limitations in their development and validation. The current study sought to develop a scale based on theory and methodological rigor. METHOD: We conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on data from two online studies to develop the System Trustworthiness Scale (STS). Additional analyses explored the manipulation of the factors and assessed convergent and divergent validity. RESULTS: The exploratory factor analyses resulted in a three-factor solution that represented the theoretical constructs of trustworthiness: performance, purpose, and process. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the three-factor solution. In addition, correlation and regression analyses demonstrated the scale's divergent and predictive validity. CONCLUSION: The STS is a psychometrically valid and predictive scale for assessing trustworthiness perceptions of system referents. APPLICATIONS: The STS assesses trustworthiness perceptions of systems. Importantly, the scale differentiates performance, purpose, and process constructs and is adaptable to a variety of system referents.

The Effect of Asset Degradation on Trust in Swarms: A Reexamination of System-Wide Trust in Human-Swarm Interaction.

OBJECTIVE: The effects of asset degradation on trust in human-swarm interaction were investigated through the lens of system-wide trust theory. BACKGROUND: Researchers have begun investigating contextual features that shape human interactions with robotic swarms-systems comprising assets that coordinate behavior based on their nearest neighbors. Recent work has begun investigating how human trust toward swarms is affected by asset degradation through the lens of system-wide trust theory, but these studies have been marked by several limitations. METHOD: In an online study, the current work manipulated asset degradation and measured trust-relevant criteria in a within-subjects design and addressed the limitations of past work. RESULTS: Controlling for swarm performance (i.e., target acquisition), asset degradation and trust (i.e., reliance intentions) in swarms were negatively related. In addition, as degradation increased, perceptions of swarm cohesion, obstacle avoidance, target acquisition, and terrain exploration efficiency decreased, the latter two of which (coupled with the reliance intentions criterion) support the tenets of system-wide trust theory as well as replicate and extend past work on the effects of asset degradation on trust in swarms. CONCLUSION: Human-swarm interaction is a context in which system-wide trust is relevant, and future work ought to investigate how to calibrate human trust toward swarm systems. APPLICATIONS: Based on these findings, design professionals should prioritize ways to depict swarm performance and system health such that humans do not abandon trust in systems that are still functional yet not over-trust those systems which are indeed performing poorly.

The effect of propensity to trust and perceptions of trustworthiness on trust behaviors in dyads.

Research on trust has burgeoned in the last few decades. Despite the growing interest in trust, little is known about trusting behaviors in non-dichotomous trust games. The current study explored propensity to trust, trustworthiness, and trust behaviors in a new computer-mediated trust relevant task. We used multivariate multilevel survival analysis (MMSA) to analyze behaviors across time. Results indicated propensity to trust did not influence trust behaviors. However, trustworthiness perceptions influenced initial trust behaviors and trust behaviors influenced subsequent trustworthiness perceptions. Indeed, behaviors fully mediated the relationship of trustworthiness perceptions over time. The study demonstrated the utility of MMSA and the new trust game, Checkmate, as viable research methods and stimuli for assessing the loci of trust.

A Monte Carlo study of IRTree models' ability to recover item parameters.

Item response tree (IRTree) models are theorized to extract response styles from self-report data by utilizing multidimensional item response theory (IRT) models based on theoretical decision processes. Despite the growing popularity of the IRTree framework, there has been little research that has systematically examined the ability of its most popular models to recover item parameters across sample size and test length. This Monte Carlo simulation study explored the ability of IRTree models to recover item parameters based on data created from the midpoint primary process model. Results indicate the IRTree model can adequately recover item parameters early in the decision process model, specifically the midpoint node. However, as the model progresses through the decision hierarchy, item parameters have increased associated error variance. The authors ultimately recommend caution when employing the IRTree framework.

Differential biases in human-human versus human-robot interactions.

The research on human-robot interactions indicates possible differences toward robot trust that do not exist in human-human interactions. Research on these differences has traditionally focused on performance degradations. The current study sought to explore differences in human-robot and human-human trust interactions with performance, consideration, and morality trustworthiness manipulations, which are based on ability/performance, benevolence/purpose, and integrity/process manipulations, respectively, from previous research. We used a mixed factorial hierarchical linear model design to explore the effects of trustworthiness manipulations on trustworthiness perceptions, trust intentions, and trust behaviors in a trust game. We found partner (human versus robot) differences across all three trustworthiness perceptions, indicating biases towards robots may be more expansive than previously thought. Additionally, there were marginal effects of partner differences on trust intentions. Interestingly, there were no differences between partners on trust behaviors. Results indicate human biases toward robots may be more complex than considered in the literature.

"I Think You Are Trustworthy, Need I Say More?" The Factor Structure and Practicalities of Trustworthiness Assessment.

Two popular models of trustworthiness have garnered support over the years. One has postulated three aspects of trustworthiness as state-based antecedents to trust. Another has been interpreted to comprise two aspects of trustworthiness. Empirical data shows support for both models, and debate remains as to the theoretical and practical reasons researchers may adopt one model over the other. The present research aimed to consider this debate by investigating the factor structure of trustworthiness. Taking items from two scales commonly employed to assess trustworthiness, we leveraged structural equation modeling to explore which theoretical model is supported by the data in an organizational trust context. We considered an array of first-order, second-order, and bifactor models. The best-fitting model was a bifactor model comprising one general trustworthiness factor and ability, benevolence, and integrity grouping factors. This model was determined to be essentially unidimensional, though this is qualified by the finding that the grouping variables accounted for significant variance with for several organizational outcome criteria. These results suggest that respondents typically employ a general factor when responding to items assessing trustworthiness, and researchers may be better served treating the construct as unidimensional or engaging in scale parceling of their models to reflect this response tendency more accurately. However, the substantial variance accounted by the grouping variables in hierarchical regression suggest there may be contexts in which it would be acceptable to consider the theoretical factors of ability, benevolence, and integrity independent of general trustworthiness.

The relationship of engagement and job satisfaction in working samples.

The present study explored the factor structure of engagement and its relationship with job satisfaction. The authors hypothesize that work engagement comprises 3 constructs: vigor, dedication, and absorption. Using structural equation modeling, the authors analyze data from 3 archival data sets to determine the factor structure of engagement. In addition, they examine the hypothesis that engagement and job satisfaction are separate but related constructs, using structural equation modeling and hierarchical regression. The authors test models in which engagement and job satisfaction items loaded onto a single latent variable and 1 in which they loaded onto 2 separate variables. Results from the confirmatory factor analysis indicate engagement has 3 factors. In addition, confirmatory factor analysis and hierarchical regressions indicate engagement and job satisfaction are separate constructs. Last, hierarchical regressions demonstrated the constructs have different relationships with the areas of work-life scale. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

Student burnout and engagement: a test of the conservation of resources theory.

The current study explored predictors of burnout and engagement in 1st-year college students. The theory of conservation of resources was used to create a path model for burnout and engagement. Specifically, the theory suggests that perceptions of demands mediate the relationship between resources and coping strategies. In turn, coping mediates the relationship of demands on the outcomes of burnout and engagement. Results indicate demands partially mediated the relationship between resources and coping strategies. Similarly, coping partially mediated the relationship between demands and burnout and engagement. Results suggest that teaching students adaptive ways of coping and extinguishing maladaptive ways of coping with the academic environment can increase engagement and decrease burnout. Implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed.

The Relationship of Insufficient Effort Responding and Response Styles: An Online Experiment.

While self-report data is a staple of modern psychological studies, they rely on participants accurately self-reporting. Two constructs that impede accurate results are insufficient effort responding (IER) and response styles. These constructs share conceptual underpinnings and both utilized to reduce cognitive effort when responding to self-report scales. Little research has extensively explored the relationship of the two constructs. The current study explored the relationship of the two constructs across even-point and odd-point scales, as well as before and after data cleaning procedures. We utilized IRTrees, a statistical method for modeling response styles, to examine the relationship between IER and response styles. To capture the wide range of IER metrics available, we employed several forms of IER assessment in our analyses and generated IER factors based on the type of IER being detected. Our results indicated an overall modest relationship between IER and response styles, which varied depending on the type of IER metric being considered or type of scale being evaluated. As expected, data cleaning also changed the relationships of some of the variables. We posit the difference between the constructs may be the degree of cognitive effort participants are willing to expend. Future research and applications are discussed.

Exploring the differential effects of trust violations in human-human and human-robot interactions.

There is sparse research directly investigating the effects of trust manipulations in human-human and human-robot interactions. Moreover, studies on human-human versus human-robot trust have leveraged unusual or low vulnerability contexts to investigate such effects and have focused mostly on robot performance. In the present research, we seek to remedy these limitations and compare trust in human-human versus human-robot collaborations in an augmented and adapted version of the Trust Game. We used a mixed factorial design to examine the effects of trust and trust violations on human-human and human-robot interactions over time with an emphasis on anthropomorphic robots in a social context. We found consistent and significant effects of partner behavior. Specifically, partner distrust behaviors led to participants' lower levels of trustworthiness perceptions, trust intentions, and trust behaviors over time compared to partner trust behaviors. We found no significant effect of partnering with a human versus an anthropomorphic robot over time across the three dependent variables, supporting the computers as social actors (CASA; Nass and Moon, 2000) paradigm. This study demonstrated that there may be instances where the effects of trust violations from an anthropomorphized robot partner are not meaningfully different from those of a human partner in a social context.

Collective Efficacy as a Mediator of the Trustworthiness - Performance Relationship in Computer-Mediated Team-based Contexts.

The current study investigated the role of trustworthiness perceptions at the individual level and collective efficacy at the team level on team performance in computer-mediated teams using multi-level structural equation modeling (MSEM). It was hypothesized that trustworthiness perceptions and collective efficacy would predict team performance, and collective efficacy would partially mediate the trustworthiness - performance relationship in computer-mediated teams. Sixty-four teams (five participants each) engaged in a computer-mediated task across two experimental sessions. Trustworthiness measured after session 1, collective efficacy measured after sessions 1 and 2, and team performance measured of sessions 1 and 2 were used to build the MSEM. The half longitudinal model for assessing mediation was used to examine the influence of trustworthiness perceptions on performance through collective efficacy over time. Results demonstrated support for the hypothesized model, such that trustworthiness perceptions demonstrated indirect effects on performance through collective efficacy. These findings extend past research by identifying an emergent mechanism by which trustworthiness is important for team performance in computer-mediated teams.

The influence of commenting validity, placement, and style on perceptions of computer code trustworthiness: A heuristic-systematic processing approach.

Computer programs are a ubiquitous part of modern society, yet little is known about the psychological processes that underlie reviewing code. We applied the heuristic-systematic model (HSM) to investigate the influence of computer code comments on perceptions of code trustworthiness. The study explored the influence of validity, placement, and style of comments in code on trustworthiness perceptions and time spent on code. Results indicated valid comments led to higher trust assessments and more time spent on the code. Properly placed comments led to lower trust assessments and had a marginal effect on time spent on code; however, the effect was no longer significant after controlling for effects of the source code. Low style comments led to marginally higher trustworthiness assessments, but high style comments led to longer time spent on the code. Several interactions were also found. Our findings suggest the relationship between code comments and perceptions of code trustworthiness is not as straightforward as previously thought. Additionally, the current paper extends the HSM to the programming literature.

The dynamic nature of the stress appraisal process and the infusion of affect.

Very little is known about the process in which people reappraise a stressful environment or the factors that may influence this process. In the current study, we address the several limitations to previous research regarding stress reappraisals and explore the role of affect on this process. A total of 320 participants (mean age = 20 years, 60% male) completed an increasingly demanding team-based coordination task. Mood and stress appraisals were assessed at three time points using self-report surveys during four different waves of data collection. The longitudinal design enabled us to assess primary and secondary reappraisals (change in appraisals during the experiment), task-irrelevant affect (affect assessed prior to experiment participation), and task-relevant affect (change in affect experienced during the experiment). Guided by the Transactional Theory of Stress, we argue that the relationship between primary reappraisal and secondary reappraisal is an accurate representation of a dynamic stress appraisal process. We found that participants were more likely to engage in the stress appraisal process when they experienced less task-irrelevant positive affect and greater task-relevant positive affect. Both task-irrelevant and task-relevant negative affect were not found to influence the stress appraisal process.

Trustworthiness and IT suspicion: an evaluation of the nomological network.

OBJECTIVE: The authors evaluated the validity of trust in automation and information technology (IT) suspicion by examining their factor structure and relationship with decision confidence. BACKGROUND: Research on trust has burgeoned, yet the dimensionality of trust remains elusive. Researchers suggest that trust is a unidimensional construct, whereas others believe it is multidimensional. Additionally, novel constructs,such as IT suspicion, have yet to be distinguished from trust in automation. Research is needed to examine the overlap between these constructs and to determine the dimensionality of trust in automation. METHOD: Participants (N = 72) engaged in a computer-based convoy scenario involving an automated decision aid. The aid fused real-time sensor data and provided route recommendations to participants who selected a route based on (a) a map with historical enemy information, (b) sensor inputs, and (c) automation suggestions. Measures for trust in automation and IT suspicion were administered after individuals interacted with the automation. RESULTS: Results indicated three orthogonal factors: trust, distrust, and IT suspicion. Each variable was explored as a predictor of decision confidence. Distrust and trust evidenced unique influences on decision confidence, albeit at different times. Higher distrust related to less confidence, whereas trust related to greater confidence. CONCLUSION: The current study found that trust in automation was best characterized by two orthogonal dimensions (trust and distrust). Both trust and distrust were found to be independent from IT suspicion,and both distrust and trust uniquely predicted decision confidence. APPLICATION: Researchers may consider using separate measures for trust and distrust in future studies.