RNF43 induces the turnover of protease-activated receptor 2 in colon cancer.

Post-translational modification of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) plays a central role in tissue hemostasis and cancer. The molecular mechanism of post-translational regulation of protease-activated receptors (PARs), a subgroup of GPCRs is yet understudied. Here we show that the cell-surface transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligase ring finger 43 (RNF43) is a negative feedback regulator of PAR2 , impacting PAR2 -induced signaling and colon cancer growth. RNF43 co-associates with PAR2 , promoting its membrane elimination and degradation as shown by reduced cell surface biotinylated PAR2 levels and polyubiquitination. PAR2 degradation is rescued by R-spondin2 in the presence of leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor5 (LGR5). In fact, PAR2 acts jointly with LGR5, as recapitulated by increased ß-catenin levels, transcriptional activity, phospho-LRP6, and anchorage-independent colony growth in agar. Animal models of the chemically induced AOM/DSS colon cancer of wt versus Par2/f2rl1 KO mice as also the 'spleen-liver' colon cancer metastasis, allocated a central role for PAR2 in colon cancer growth and development. RNF43 is abundantly expressed in the Par2/f2rl1 KO-treated AOM/DSS colon tissues while its level is very low to nearly null in colon cancer adenocarcinomas of the wt mice. The same result is obtained in the 'spleen-liver' model of spleen-inoculated cells, metastasized to the liver. High RNF43 expression is observed in the liver upon shRNA -Par2 silencing. "Limited-dilution-assay" performed in mice in-vivo, assigned PAR2 as a member of the cancer stem cell niche compartment. Collectively, we elucidate an original regulation of PAR2 oncogene, a member of cancer stem cells, by RNF43 ubiquitin ligase. It impacts ß-catenin signaling and colon cancer growth.

New Target(s) for RNF43 Regulation: Implications for Therapeutic Strategies.

Cancer cells depend on specific oncogenic pathways or present a genetic alteration that leads to a particular disturbance. Still, personalized and targeted biological therapy remains challenging, with current efforts generally yielding disappointing results. Carefully assessing onco-target molecular pathways can, however, potently assist with such efforts for the selection of patient populations that would best respond to a given drug treatment. RNF43, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that negatively regulates Wnt/frizzled (FZD) receptors by their ubiquitination, internalization, and degradation, controls a key pathway in cancer. Recently, additional target proteins of RNF43 were described, including p85 of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), a G-protein-coupled receptor that potently induces ß-catenin stabilization, independent of Wnts. RNF43 mutations with impaired E3 ligase activity were found in several types of cancers (e.g., gastrointestinal system tumors and endometrial and ovarian cancer), pointing to a high dependency on FZD receptors and possibly PAR2 and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. The development of drugs toward these targets is essential for improved treatment of cancer patients.

PAR-Induced Harnessing of EZH2 to ß-Catenin: Implications for Colorectal Cancer.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in a wide array of physiological and disease functions, yet knowledge of their role in colon cancer stem cell maintenance is still lacking. In addition, the molecular mechanisms underlying GPCR-induced post-translational signaling regulation are poorly understood. Here, we find that protease-activated receptor 4 (PAR4) unexpectedly acts as a potent oncogene, inducing ß-catenin stability and transcriptional activity. Both PAR4 and PAR2 are able to drive the association of methyltransferase EZH2 with ß-catenin, culminating in ß-catenin methylation. This methylation on a lysine residue at the N-terminal portion of ß-catenin suppresses the ubiquitination of ß-catenin, thereby promoting PAR-induced ß-catenin stability and transcriptional activity. Indeed, EZH2 is found to be directly correlated with high PAR4-driven tumors, and is abundantly expressed in large tumors, whereas very little to almost none is expressed in small tumors. A truncated form of ß-catenin, ∆N133ß-catenin, devoid of lysine, as well as serine/threonine residues, exhibits low levels of ß-catenin and a markedly reduced transcriptional activity following PAR4 activation, in contrast to wt ß-catenin. Our study demonstrates the importance of ß-catenin lysine methylation in terms of its sustained expression and function. Taken together, we reveal that PAR-induced post-transcriptional regulation of ß-catenin is centrally involved in colon cancer.

PAR1&2 driven placenta EVT invasion act via LRP5/6 as coreceptors.

While the involvement of protease-activated receptors (PARs) in the physiological regulation of human placenta development, as in tumor biology, is recognized, the molecular pathway is unknown. We evaluated the impact of PAR1 and PAR2 function in cytotrophoblast (CTB) proliferation and invasion in a system of extravillous trophoblast (EVT) organ culture and in human cell-lines. Activation of PAR1 - and PAR2 -induced EVT invasion and proliferation, while the shRNA silencing of low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5/6 (LRP5/6) inhibited these processes. PAR1 and PAR2 effectively induce ß-catenin stabilization in a manner similar to that shown for the canonical ß-catenin stabilization pathway yet independent of Wnts. Immunoprecipitation analyses and protein-protein docking demonstrated the co-association between either PAR1 or PAR2 with LRP5/6 forming an axis of PAR-LRP5/6-Axin. Noticeably, in PAR1 -PAR2 heterodimers a dominant role is assigned to PAR2 over PAR1 as shown by inhibition of PAR1 -induced ß-catenin levels, and Dvl nuclear localization. This inhibition takes place either by shRNA silenced hPar2 or in the presence of a TrPAR2 devoid its cytoplasmic tail. Indeed, TrPAR2 cannot form the PAR1 -PAR2 complex, obstructing thereby the flow of signals downstream. Elucidation of the mechanism of PAR-induced invasion contributes to therapeutic options highlighting key partners in the process.

GPCR Partners as Cancer Driver Genes: Association with PH-Signal Proteins in a Distinctive Signaling Network.

The essential role of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) in tumor growth is recognized, yet a GPCR based drug in cancer is rare. Understanding the molecular path of a tumor driver gene may lead to the design and development of an effective drug. For example, in members of protease-activated receptor (PAR) family (e.g., PAR1 and PAR2), a novel PH-binding motif is allocated as critical for tumor growth. Animal models have indicated the generation of large tumors in the presence of PAR1 or PAR2 oncogenes. These tumors showed effective inhibition when the PH-binding motif was either modified or were inhibited by a specific inhibitor targeted to the PH-binding motif. In the second part of the review we discuss several aspects of some cardinal GPCRs in tumor angiogenesis.

Correction to: Cancer driver G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) induced ß-catenin nuclear localization: the transcriptional junction.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake. The family name of Beatrice Uziely was mistakenly spelled as Uzieky. The correct name is now presented above.

Cancer driver G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) induced ß-catenin nuclear localization: the transcriptional junction.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the main signal-transmitting components in the cell membrane. Over the past several years, biochemical and structural analyses have immensely enhanced our knowledge of GPCR involvement in health and disease states. The present review focuses on GPCRs that are cancer drivers, involved in tumor growth and development. Our aim is to highlight the involvement of stabilized ß-catenin molecular machinery with a specific array of GPCRs. We discuss recent advances in understanding the molecular path leading to ß-catenin nuclear localization and transcriptional activity and their implications for future cancer therapy research.

Transcriptional Landscape of PARs in Epithelial Malignancies.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the largest family of cell receptors, act as important regulators of diverse signaling pathways. Our understanding of the impact of GPCRs in tumors is emerging, yet there is no therapeutic platform based on GPCR driver genes. As cancer progresses, it disrupts normal epithelial organization and maintains the cells outside their normal niche. The dynamic and flexible microenvironment of a tumor contains both soluble and matrix-immobilized proteases that contribute to the process of cancer advancement. An example is the activation of cell surface protease-activated receptors (PARs). Mammalian PARs are a subgroup of GPCRs that form a family of four members, PAR1⁻4, which are uniquely activated by proteases found in the microenvironment. PAR1 and PAR2 play central roles in tumor biology, and PAR3 acts as a coreceptor. The significance of PAR4 in neoplasia is just beginning to emerge. PAR1 has been shown to be overexpressed in malignant epithelia, in direct correlation with tumor aggressiveness, but there is no expression in normal epithelium. In this review, the involvement of key transcription factors such as Egr1, p53, Twist, AP2, and Sp1 that control PAR1 expression levels specifically, as well as hormone transcriptional regulation by both estrogen receptors (ER) and androgen receptors (AR) are discussed. The cloning of the human protease-activated receptor 2; Par2 (hPar2) promoter region and transcriptional regulation of estrogen (E2) via binding of the E2⁻ER complex to estrogen response elements (ERE) are shown. In addition, evidence that TEA domain 4 (TEAD4) motifs are present within the hPar2 promoter is presented since the YAP oncogene, which plays a central part in tumor etiology, acts via the TEAD4 transcription factor. As of now, no information is available on regulation of the hPar3 promoter. With regard to hPar4, only data showing CpG methylation promoter regulation is available. Characterization of the PAR transcriptional landscape may identify powerful targets for cancer therapies.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Cancer.

Despite the fact that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest signal-conveying receptor family and mediate many physiological processes, their role in tumor biology is underappreciated. Numerous lines of evidence now associate GPCRs and their downstream signaling targets in cancer growth and development. Indeed, GPCRs control many features of tumorigenesis, including immune cell-mediated functions, proliferation, invasion and survival at the secondary site. Technological advances have further substantiated GPCR modifications in human tumors. Among these are point mutations, gene overexpression, GPCR silencing by promoter methylation and the number of gene copies. At this point, it is imperative to elucidate specific signaling pathways of "cancer driver" GPCRs. Emerging data on GPCR biology point to functional selectivity and "biased agonism"; hence, there is a diminishing enthusiasm for the concept of "one drug per GPCR target" and increasing interest in the identification of several drug options. Therefore, determining the appropriate context-dependent conformation of a functional GPCR as well as the contribution of GPCR alterations to cancer development remain significant challenges for the discovery of dominant cancer genes and the development of targeted therapeutics.

Protease-activated-receptor-2 affects protease-activated-receptor-1-driven breast cancer.

Mammalian protease-activated-receptor-1 and -2 (PAR1 and PAR2) are activated by proteases found in the flexible microenvironment of a tumor and play a central role in breast cancer. We propose in the present study that PAR1 and PAR2 act together as a functional unit during malignant and physiological invasion processes. This notion is supported by assessing pro-tumor functions in the presence of short hairpin; shRNA knocked-down hPar2 or by the use of a truncated PAR2 devoid of the entire cytoplasmic tail. Silencing of hPar2 by shRNA-attenuated thrombin induced PAR1 signaling as recapitulated by inhibiting the assembly of Etk/Bmx or Akt onto PAR1-C-tail, by thrombin-instigated colony formation and invasion. Strikingly, shRNA-hPar2 also inhibited the TFLLRN selective PAR1 pro-tumor functions. In addition, while evaluating the physiological invasion process of placenta extravillous trophoblast (EVT) organ culture, we observed inhibition of both thrombin or the selective PAR1 ligand; TFLLRNPNDK induced EVT invasion by shRNA-hPar2 but not by scrambled shRNA-hPar2. In parallel, when a truncated PAR2 was utilized in a xenograft mouse model, it inhibited PAR1-PAR2-driven tumor growth in vivo. Similarly, it also attenuated the interaction of Etk/Bmx with the PAR1-C-tail in vitro and decreased markedly selective PAR1-induced Matrigel invasion. Confocal images demonstrated co-localization of PAR1 and PAR2 in HEK293T cells over-expressing YFP-hPar2 and HA-hPar1. Co-immuno-precipitation analyses revealed PAR1-PAR2 complex formation but no PAR1-CXCR4 complex was formed. Taken together, our observations show that PAR1 and PAR2 act as a functional unit in tumor development and placenta-uterus interactions. This conclusion may have significant consequences on future breast cancer therapeutic modalities and improved late pregnancy outcome.

Involvement of Protease-Activated Receptor2 Pleckstrin Homology Binding Domain in Ovarian Cancer: Expression in Fallopian Tubes and Drug Design.

Studying primordial events in cancer is pivotal for identifying predictive molecular indicators and for targeted intervention. While the involvement of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in cancer is growing, GPCR-based therapies are yet rare. Here, we demonstrate the overexpression of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), a GPCR member in the fallopian tubes (FTs) of high-risk BRCA carriers as compared to null in healthy tissues of FT. FTs, the origin of ovarian cancer, are known to express genes of serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (STICs), a precursor lesion of high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC). PAR2 expression in FTs may serve as an early prediction sensor for ovarian cancer. We show now that knocking down Par2 inhibits ovarian cancer peritoneal dissemination in vivo, pointing to the central role of PAR2. Previously we identified pleckstrin homology (PH) binding domains within PAR1,2&4 as critical sites for cancer-growth. These motifs associate with PH-signal proteins via launching a discrete signaling network in cancer. Subsequently, we selected a compound from a library of backbone cyclic peptides generated toward the PAR PH binding motif, namely the lead compound, Pc(4-4). Pc(4-4) binds to the PAR PH binding domain and blocks the association of PH-signal proteins, such as Akt or Etk/Bmx with PAR2. It attenuates PAR2 oncogenic activity. The potent inhibitory function of Pc(4-4) is demonstrated via inhibition of ovarian cancer peritoneal spread in mice. While the detection of PAR2 may serve as a predictor for ovarian cancer, the novel Pc(4-4) compound may serve as a powerful medicament in STICs and ovarian cancer. This is the first demonstration of the involvement of PAR PH binding motif signaling in ovarian cancer and Pc(4-4) as a potential therapy treatment.

Regulation of human protease-activated receptor 1 (hPar1) gene expression in breast cancer by estrogen.

A pivotal role is attributed to the estrogen-receptor (ER) pathway in mediating the effect of estrogen in breast cancer progression. Yet the precise mechanisms of cancer development by estrogen remain poorly understood. Advancing tumor categorization a step forward, and identifying cellular gene fingerprints to accompany histopathological assessment may provide targets for therapy as well as vehicles for evaluating the response to treatment. We report here that in breast carcinoma, estrogen may induce tumor development by eliciting protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR(1)) gene expression. Induction of PAR(1) was shown by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, luciferase reporter gene driven by the hPar(1) promoter, and chromatin-immunoprecipitation analyses. Functional estrogen regulation of hPar1 in breast cancer was demonstrated by an endothelial tube-forming network. Notably, tissue-microarray analyses from an established cohort of women diagnosed with invasive breast carcinoma exhibited a significantly shorter disease-free (P=0.006) and overall (P=0.02) survival of patients that were positive for ER and PAR(1), compared to ER-positive but PAR(1)-negative patients. We propose that estrogen transcriptionally regulates hPar(1), culminating in an aggressive gene imprint in breast cancer. While ER(+) patients are traditionally treated with hormone therapy, the presence of PAR(1) identifies a group of patients that requires additional treatment, such as anti-PAR(1) biological vehicles or chemotherapy.

PH-Binding Motif in PAR4 Oncogene: From Molecular Mechanism to Drug Design.

While the role of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) in cancer is acknowledged, their underlying signaling pathways are understudied. Protease-activated receptors (PAR), a subgroup of GPCRs, form a family of four members (PAR1-4) centrally involved in epithelial malignancies. PAR4 emerges as a potent oncogene, capable of inducing tumor generation. Here, we demonstrate identification of a pleckstrin-homology (PH)-binding motif within PAR4, critical for colon cancer growth. In addition to PH-Akt/PKB association, other PH-containing signal proteins such as Gab1 and Sos1 also associate with PAR4. Point mutations are in the C-tail of PAR4 PH-binding domain; F347 L and D349A, but not E346A, abrogate these associations. Pc(4-4), a lead backbone cyclic peptide, was selected out of a mini-library, directed toward PAR2&4 PH-binding motifs. It effectively attenuates PAR2&4-Akt/PKB associations; PAR4 instigated Matrigel invasion and migration in vitro and tumor development in vivo. EGFR/erbB is among the most prominent cancer targets. AYPGKF peptide ligand activation of PAR4 induces EGF receptor (EGFR) Tyr-phosphorylation, effectively inhibited by Pc(4-4). The presence of PAR2 and PAR4 in biopsies of aggressive breast and colon cancer tissue specimens is demonstrated. We propose that Pc(4-4) may serve as a powerful drug not only toward PAR-expressing tumors but also for treating EGFR/erbB-expressing tumors in cases of resistance to traditional therapies. Overall, our studies are expected to allocate new targets for cancer therapy. Pc(4-4) may become a promising candidate for future therapeutic cancer treatment.

Protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1) acts via a novel Galpha13-dishevelled axis to stabilize beta-catenin levels.

We have previously shown a novel link between hPar-1 (human protease-activated receptor-1) and beta-catenin stabilization. Although it is well recognized that Wnt signaling leads to beta-catenin accumulation, the role of PAR1 in the process is unknown. We provide here evidence that PAR1 induces beta-catenin stabilization independent of Wnt, Fz (Frizzled), and the co-receptor LRP5/6 (low density lipoprotein-related protein 5/6) and identify selective mediators of the PAR1-beta-catenin axis. Immunohistological analyses of hPar1-transgenic (TG) mouse mammary tissues show the expression of both Galpha(12) and Galpha(13) compared with age-matched control counterparts. However, only Galpha(13) was found to be actively involved in PAR1-induced beta-catenin stabilization. Indeed, a dominant negative form of Galpha(13) inhibited both PAR1-induced Matrigel invasion and Lef/Tcf (lymphoid enhancer factor/T cell factor) transcription activity. PAR1-Galpha(13) association is followed by the recruitment of DVL (Dishevelled), an upstream Wnt signaling protein via the DIX domain. Small interfering RNA-Dvl silencing leads to a reduction in PAR1-induced Matrigel invasion, inhibition of Lef/Tcf transcription activity, and decreased beta-catenin accumulation. It is of note that PAR1 also promotes the binding of beta-arrestin-2 to DVL, suggesting a role for beta-arrestin-2 in PAR1-induced DVL phosphorylation dynamics. Although infection of small interfering RNA-LRP5/6 or the use of the Wnt antagonists, SFRP2 (soluble Frizzled-related protein 2) or SFRP5 potently reduced Wnt3A-mediated beta-catenin accumulation, no effect was observed on PAR1-induced beta-catenin stabilization. Collectively, our data show that PAR1 mediates beta-catenin stabilization independent of Wnt. We propose here a novel cascade of PAR1-induced Galpha(13)-DVL axis in cancer and beta-catenin stabilization.

PAR1 plays a role in epithelial malignancies: transcriptional regulation and novel signaling pathway.

Protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR(1)) is the first and prototype member of an established PAR family comprising four members. The role of PAR(1) in tumor biology has been established, and is characterized by a consistent direct correlation between overexpression of its levels and epithelial tumor aggressiveness. We have found that high expression of the human Par(1) (hPar(1)) gene in epithelial tumors is controlled largely at the transcriptional level. This led us to assign Egr-1, a transcription activator, as an inducer of hPar(1), and p53, a tumor suppressor gene, as an inhibitor, both acting to achieve fine tuning of hPar(1) in prostate carcinoma. High PAR(1) levels maintain prosurvival signals in tumor cells while silencing or ablation of the gene induce apoptosis. Studies of our hPar(1) transgenic mice, which overexpress hPar(1) in the mammary glands, revealed a novel PAR(1)-induced ß-catenin stabilization function. The components connecting PAR(1) to ß-catenin stabilization have been determined, assigning at first G(α)(13) as a selective immediate component. The PAR(1)-G(α) (13) axis recruits disheveled (DVL), an upstream signaling partner of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Silencing of DVL by siRNA-DVL potently abrogates PAR(1)-induced ß-catenin stabilization, demonstrating its critical role in the process. We, thus, propose that transcriptional regulation of hPar(1) gene over expression in epithelia malignancies initiates a novel signaling pathway, directly connecting to ß-catenin stabilization, a core event in both tumorigenesis and developmental processes.

Protease activated receptor-1, PAR1, promotes placenta trophoblast invasion and beta-catenin stabilization.

Despite extensive efforts toward elucidation of the molecular pathway controlling cytotrophoblast (CTB) invasion to the uterine decidua, it remains poorly defined. There are striking similarities between tumor cell invasion and cytotrophoblast implantation to the deciduas whereby the role of Protease Activated Receptors (PARs) and wnt signaling is well recognized. We examine here consequences of modulation of PAR1 and PAR2 expression and function on CTB invasion and beta-catenin stabilization. Toward this end, we utilized a model system of extravillous trophoblast (EVT) organ culture and various placenta cell lines (e.g., JAR and HTR-8/Svneo). Activation of PAR1 induces EVT invasion while hPar1-SiRNA and PAR1 antagonist SCH79797--effectively inhibited it. In parallel, the Wnt inhibitor Dickkopf-1 (Dkk1) similarly inhibited it. Nuclear localization of beta-catenin is seen only after PAR1 activation, and is markedly reduced following the application of hPar1-SiRNA construct and PAR1 antagonist in CTBs. In contrast, PAR2 elicited a low cytoplasmic beta-catenin level as also proliferation and invasion. In the non-activated CTBs in-comparison, beta-catenin appeared limited to the membrane pools. Concomitantly, a temporal regulated pattern of Wnt-4, 5a, 7b, 10a, 10b expression is seen along PAR1 appearance. Enforced expression of Wnt antagonists, Secreted Frizzled Related Proteins; SFRP2 & 5; into HTR-8/Svneo, resulted with a markedly reduced nuclear beta-catenin levels, similar to the effect obtained by hPar1-SiRNA treatment. Identification of PAR1 downstream target/s may nonetheless contribute to the formation of a future platform system for eliciting a firm placenta-uterus interactions and to the definition of late pregnancy outcomes.

Thrombin receptor PAR-1 on myelin at the node of Ranvier: a new anatomy and physiology of conduction block.

Inflammatory demyelinating diseases of peripheral nerves are associated with altered nerve conduction and with activation of the coagulation pathway. Thrombin mediates many of its effects through protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1). We examined the possibility that thrombin may mediate conduction abnormalities through PAR-1 on rat sciatic nerve. PAR-1 was found to be present by both RT-PCR and Western blot analysis of the sciatic nerve. Activation of PAR-1 by a specific peptide agonist caused a 3-fold increase in phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in the sciatic nerve indicating the existence of functional receptors in the nerve. By confocal immunofluoresence microscopy of the sciatic nerve using anti-PAR-1 antibody and double staining for the paranodal marker contactin-associated protein 1 (Caspr1) or the nodal markers gliomedin and ezrin, the receptor was localized predominantly to myelin microvilli at the node of Ranvier. Thrombin and the PAR-1-specific agonist were applied to exposed rat sciatic nerve and their effects on nerve conduction were measured. Thrombin at concentrations of 100 and 200 U/ml and PAR-1 agonists 150 and 300 muM produced a conduction block within 30 min of application. This effect was maintained for at least 1 h and was reversible by washing. The function of the nodal non-compacted myelin is not well known. The current results implicate this structure and PAR-1 activation in the pathogenesis of conduction block in inflammatory and thrombotic nerve diseases.

Transcriptional regulation of human protease-activated receptor 1: a role for the early growth response-1 protein in prostate cancer.

Transcriptional regulation plays a central role in the molecular pathways underlying preferential cancer growth and metastasis. In the present study, we investigated the regulation of human protease-activated receptor 1 (hPar1) gene overexpression in the malignant androgen hormone-resistant phase. We found increased hPar1 RNA chain elongation and no change in message stability in cells with high levels of PAR1 expression, indicating that increased transcription is largely responsible for the overexpression of hPar1 in prostate tumor progression. Enforced expression of early growth response-1 (Egr-1) plasmid markedly enhanced luciferase activity driven by the hPar1 promoter. The neuroendocrine peptide bombesin significantly induced hPar1 expression and increased the ability of the cells to invade Matrigel, an effect abolished by expression of hPar1 small interfering RNA, showing the importance of hPAR1 in invasion. Bombesin also markedly enhanced Egr-1 binding to the hPar1 promoter in vivo and in vitro. These data suggest that bombesin enhances Egr-1 expression leading to increased hPar1 transcription, thereby increasing PAR1 expression and function. Immunohistostaining of prostate tissue biopsy specimens revealed a direct correlation between the degree of prostate cancer malignancy, PAR1 expression, and EGR-1 expression. Altogether, we show that transcriptional regulation of hPar1 in the aggressive hormone-resistant prostate cancer stage is controlled in part by the transcription factor Egr-1 and may play a central role in invasiveness, an important indicator of malignancy.