Metal-insulator-semiconductor photoelectrodes for enhanced photoelectrochemical water splitting.

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting provides a scalable and integrated platform to harness renewable solar energy for green hydrogen production. The practical implementation of PEC systems hinges on addressing three critical challenges: enhancing energy conversion efficiency, ensuring long-term stability, and achieving economic viability. Metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) heterojunction photoelectrodes have gained significant attention over the last decade for their ability to efficiently segregate photogenerated carriers and mitigate corrosion-induced semiconductor degradation. This review discusses the structural composition and interfacial intricacies of MIS photoelectrodes tailored for PEC water splitting. The application of MIS heterostructures across various semiconductor light-absorbing layers, including traditional photovoltaic-grade semiconductors, metal oxides, and emerging materials, is presented first. Subsequently, this review elucidates the reaction mechanisms and respective merits of vacuum and non-vacuum deposition techniques in the fabrication of the insulator layers. In the context of the metal layers, this review extends beyond the conventional scope, not only by introducing metal-based cocatalysts, but also by exploring the latest advancements in molecular and single-atom catalysts integrated within MIS photoelectrodes. Furthermore, a systematic summary of carrier transfer mechanisms and interface design principles of MIS photoelectrodes is presented, which are pivotal for optimizing energy band alignment and enhancing solar-to-chemical conversion efficiency within the PEC system. Finally, this review explores innovative derivative configurations of MIS photoelectrodes, including back-illuminated MIS photoelectrodes, inverted MIS photoelectrodes, tandem MIS photoelectrodes, and monolithically integrated wireless MIS photoelectrodes. These novel architectures address the limitations of traditional MIS structures by effectively coupling different functional modules, minimizing optical and ohmic losses, and mitigating recombination losses.

Atom-by-atom electrodeposition of single isolated cobalt oxide molecules and clusters for studying the oxygen evolution reaction.

We report an electrodeposition protocol for preparing isolated cobalt oxide single molecules (Co1Ox) and clusters (Co n Oy) on a carbon fiber nanoelectrode. The as-prepared deposits are able to produce well-defined steady-state voltammograms for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in alkaline media, where the equivalent radius (rd) is estimated by the limiting current of hydroxide oxidation in accordance with the electrocatalytic amplification model. The size of isolated clusters obtained from the femtomolar Co2+ solution through an atom-by-atom technique can reach as small as 0.21 nm (rd) which is approximately the length of Co-O bond in cobalt oxide. Therefore, the deposit was close to that of a Co1Ox single molecule with only one cobalt ion, the minimum unit of the cobalt-based oxygen-evolving catalyst. Additionally, the size-dependent catalysis of the OER on Co n Oy deposits shows a faster relative rate on the smaller cluster in terms of the potential at a given current density, implying the single molecular catalyst shows a superior OER activity.

Surface Interrogation of Electrodeposited MnOx and CaMnO3 Perovskites by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy: Probing Active Sites and Kinetics for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction.

Surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy (SI-SECM) of two electrodeposited manganese-based electrocatalysts, amorphous MnOx and perovskite CaMnO3 , was used to investigate the manganese oxidation state relating to the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) under neutral conditions. The results indicate the amounts of MnIII and MnIV species in MnOx and CaMnO3 depend on potential. A MnV species was identified in both structures during the OER. Time-delay titration of MnV further revealed that MnOx produced two types of active sites with different OER reaction rates: k'fast (MnOx )=1.21 s-1 and k'slow (MnOx )=0.24 s-1 . In contrast, CaMnO3 perovskites in which the MnV species formed at a less positive potential than that in MnOx , displayed only one kinetic behavior with a faster reaction rate of 1.72 s-1 .

Lipid Membrane Permeability of Synthetic Redox DMPC Liposomes Investigated by Single Electrochemical Collisions.

The electrochemical detection of synthetic redox DMPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) liposomes by single collisions at 10 µm diameter carbon and Pt ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) is reported. To study the parameters influencing the lipid membrane opening/permeability, the electrochemical detection of single redox DMPC liposome collisions at polarized UMEs was investigated under different experimental conditions (addition of surfactant, temperature). The electrochemical responses recorded showed that the permeability of the DMPC lipid membrane (tuned by addition of Triton X-100 surfactant or by the increase of the solution temperature) is a key parameter for the liposome membrane electroporation process and hence for the release and oxidation of its redox content during the collision onto UMEs. The presence of ferrocenemethanol as an additional redox probe in the aqueous solution (at room temperature and without addition of surfactant) is also an interesting strategy to detect current spikes corresponding to single redox DMPC liposome collisions with K3Fe(CN)6/K4Fe(CN)6 as the encapsulated aqueous redox probe.

Probing Size and Substrate Effects on the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction by Single Isolated Pt Atoms, Atomic Clusters, and Nanoparticles.

We report the catalytic activity of a single, isolated Pt deposit on Bi and Pb supports to probe the size and substrate effects on the electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Deposits were made electrolytically by an atom-by-atom method in a controlled plating; we prepared an individual Pt deposit on Bi and Pb ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) such as a single isolated atom, clusters containing one to five Pt atoms, and nanoparticles to about 10 nm radius. A steady-state voltammogram on the single Pt deposits is observed by electrocatalytic amplification of the HER, with a negligible contribution by the HER at the substrate UME. A single Pt atom can act as an electrode for the HER, showing a diffusion-limiting current plateau in the voltammogram that can be used to estimate the radius of a single deposit. We simulated the voltammograms of the individual deposits, assuming the Volmer step of the HER is appropriate for a Pt cluster deposit, to obtain kinetic parameters for each deposit. The HER kinetics increases as the particle radius increases from ∼0.2 to ∼4 nm for Bi and Pb substrates and then reaches a limiting plateau. The limiting kinetics on the Bi substrate approaches that of bulk Pt while that on the Pb substrate is much smaller.

Enzymatically enhanced collisions on ultramicroelectrodes for specific and rapid detection of individual viruses.

We report the specific collision of a single murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) on a platinum ultramicroelectrode (UME, radius of 1 µm). Antibody directed against the viral surface protein glycoprotein B functionalized with glucose oxidase (GOx) allowed for specific detection of the virus in solution and a biological sample (urine). The oxidation of ferrocene methanol to ferrocenium methanol was carried out at the electrode surface, and the ferrocenium methanol acted as the cosubstrate to GOx to catalyze the oxidation of glucose to gluconolactone. In the presence of glucose, the incident collision of a GOx-covered virus onto the UME while ferrocene methanol was being oxidized produced stepwise increases in current as observed by amperometry. These current increases were observed due to the feedback loop of ferrocene methanol to the surface of the electrode after GOx reduces ferrocenium methanol back to ferrocene. Negative controls (i) without glucose, (ii) with an irrelevant virus (murine gammaherpesvirus 68), and (iii) without either virus do not display these current increases. Stepwise current decreases were observed for the prior two negative controls and no discrete events were observed for the latter. We further apply this method to the detection of MCMV in urine of infected mice. The method provides for a selective, rapid, and sensitive detection technique based on electrochemical collisions.

High-Performance Photodetectors Based on Solution-Processed Epitaxial Grown Hybrid Halide Perovskites.

Hybrid organic-inorganic halide perovskites (HOIPs) have recently attracted tremendous attention because of their excellent semiconducting and optoelectronic properties, which exist despite their morphology and crystallinity being far inferior to those of more mature semiconductors, such as silicon and III-V compound semiconductors. Heteroepitaxy can provide a route to achieving high-performance HOIP devices when high crystalline quality and smooth morphology are required, but work on heteroepitaxial HOIPs has not previously been reported. Here, we demonstrate epitaxial growth of methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) on single crystal KCl substrates with smooth morphology and the highest carrier recombination lifetime (∼213 ns) yet reported for nonsingle crystalline MAPbI3. Experimental Raman spectra agree well with theoretical calculations, presenting in particular a sharp peak at 290 cm-1 for the torsional mode of the organic cations, a marker of orientational order and typically lacking in previous reports. Photodetectors were fabricated showing excellent performance, confirming the high quality of the epitaxial MAPbI3 thin films. This work provides a new strategy to enhance the performance of all HOIPs-based devices.

Electrochemical Production of Si without Generation of CO2 Based on the Use of a Dimensionally Stable Anode in Molten CaCl2.

The current Si production process is based on the high-temperature (1700 °C) reduction of SiO2 with carbon that produces large amounts of CO2 . We report an alternative low-temperature (850 °C) process based on the reduction of SiO2 in molten CaCl2 that does not produce CO2 . It utilizes an anode material (Ti4 O7 ) capable of sustained oxygen evolution. Two types of this anode material, dense Ti4 O7 and porous Ti4 O7 , were tested. The dense anode showed a better performance. The anode stability is attributed to the formation of a protective TiO2 layer on its surface. In situ periodic current reversal and ex situ H2 reduction could be used for extending the lifetime of the anodes. The findings show that this material can be applied as a recyclable anode in molten CaCl2 . Si wires, films, and particles were deposited with this anode under different cathodic current densities. The prepared Si film exhibited ≈30-40 % of the photocurrent response of a commercial p-type Si wafer, indicating potential use in photovoltaic cells.

Direct Observation of C2O4•- and CO2•- by Oxidation of Oxalate within Nanogap of Scanning Electrochemical Microscope.

Oxalate oxidation in the presence of different oxidized luminophores leads to the emission of light and has been studied extensively in electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL). The proposed mechanism involves the initial formation of the oxalate radical anion, C2O4•-. The ensuing decomposition of C2O4•- produces a very strong reductant, CO2•-, which reacts with the oxidized luminophores to generate excited states that emit light. Although the mechanism has been proposed for decades, the experimental demonstration is still lacking, because of the complexity of the system and the short lifetimes of both radical anions. To address these issues, we studied oxalate oxidation at platinum ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) in anhydrous N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution by nanoscale scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) with the tip generation/substrate collection (TG/SC) mode. A Pt nanoelectrode was utilized as the SECM generator for oxalate oxidation, while another Pt UME served as the SECM collector and was used to capture the generated intermediates. We studied the influence of the gap distance, d, on the substrate current ( is). The results indicate that, when 73 nm < d < 500 nm, the species captured by the substrate were primarily CO2•-, while C2O4•- was the predominant intermediate measured when d was below 73 nm. A half-life of 1.3 µs for C2O4•- was obtained, which indicates a stepwise mechanism for oxalate oxidation. The relevance of these observations to the use of oxalate as the coreactant in ECL systems is also discussed.

Extraordinary Dielectric Properties at Heterojunctions of Amorphous Ferroelectrics.

Materials having a high dielectric constant are needed for a variety of electrical applications from transistors to capacitors. Ferroelectric amorphous-oxide (glass) alkali-ion electrolytes of composition A2.99Ba0.005ClO (A = Li, Na) are shown by two different types of measurement and different consistent analyses to have extraordinarily high dielectric constants, varying from 109 at 25 °C to 1010 at 220 °C if the glass is properly conditioned. These anomalously high dielectric properties coexist with alkali-ion conductivities at 25 °C that are equivalent to those of the best organic-liquid electrolytes of a Li-ion cell, and cyclic voltammetry (CV) in a Au/glass electrolyte/Au cell is stable from -10 to +10 V. A model to interpret microscopically all the key features of the CV curves shows that the electric-double-layer capacitors that form at the gold/electrolyte interfaces in the Au/glass electrolyte/Au heterojunction reverse polarization at an applied voltage V = ±2.1 V, resulting in three almost equivalent discharging capacitances for a single physical capacitor from -10 to +10 V.

Surface Interrogation Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy for a Photoelectrochemical Reaction: Water Oxidation on a Hematite Surface.

To understand the pathway of a photoelectrochemical (PEC) reaction, quantitative knowledge of reaction intermediates is important. We describe here surface interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy for this purpose (PEC SI-SECM), where a light pulse to a photoactive semiconductor film at a given potential generates intermediates that are then analyzed by a tip generated titrant at known times after the light pulse. The improvements were demonstrated for photoelectrochemical water oxidation (oxygen evolution) reaction on a hematite surface. The density of photoactive sites, proposed to be Fe4+ species, on a hematite surface was successfully quantified, and the photoelectrochemical water oxidation reaction dynamics were elucidated by time-dependent redox titration experiments. The new configuration of PEC SI-SECM should find expanded usage to understand and investigate more complicated PEC reactions with other materials.

Ultrasensitive Electroanalysis: Femtomolar Determination of Lead, Cobalt, and Nickel.

We demonstrate the feasibility of attaining femtomolar limits of quantitation in electroanalysis. The method employed is based on electrocatalytic amplification, where small quantities of metal deposit performed on a carbon electrode causes a large increase in the observed current, for example, for the oxidation of water. We show calibration curves at the femtomolar level for cobalt, nickel, and lead ions on carbon ultramicroelectrodes (CUMEs), ca. 500 nm radii. The CUME was biased at a potential where the ion would deposit as the metal oxide, MOx, and a high concentration of species that is oxidized at the deposit is present in solution. Blips were observed in the amperometric i-t response, and their frequency scaled linearly with the concentration of ions at the femtomolar level. From these results, the limits of quantitation for cobalt, nickel, and lead ions were reported at 10 s of femtomolar level for the first time.

Localized dielectric breakdown and antireflection coating in metal-oxide-semiconductor photoelectrodes.

Silicon-based photoelectrodes for solar fuel production have attracted great interest over the past decade, with the major challenge being silicon's vulnerability to corrosion. A metal-insulator-semiconductor architecture, in which an insulator film serves as a protection layer, can prevent corrosion but must also allow low-resistance carrier transport, generally leading to a trade-off between stability and efficiency. In this work, we propose and demonstrate a general method to decouple the two roles of the insulator by employing localized dielectric breakdown. This approach allows the insulator to be thick, which enhances stability, while enabling low-resistance carrier transport as required for efficiency. This method can be applied to various oxides, such as SiO2 and Al2O3. In addition, it is suitable for silicon, III-V compounds, and other optical absorbers for both photocathodes and photoanodes. Finally, the thick metal-oxide layer can serve as a thin-film antireflection coating, which increases light absorption efficiency.

Electrochemical detection of a single cytomegalovirus at an ultramicroelectrode and its antibody anchoring.

We report observations of stochastic collisions of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) on ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs), extending the observation of discrete collision events on UMEs to biologically relevant analytes. Adsorption of an antibody specific for a virion surface glycoprotein allowed differentiation of MCMV from MCMV bound by antibody from the collision frequency decrease and current magnitudes in the electrochemical collision experiments, which shows the efficacy of the method to size viral samples. To add selectivity to the technique, interactions between MCMV, a glycoprotein-specific primary antibody to MCMV, and polystyrene bead "anchors," which were functionalized with a secondary antibody specific to the Fc region of the primary antibody, were used to affect virus mobility. Bead aggregation was observed, and the extent of aggregation was measured using the electrochemical collision technique. Scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy further supported aggregate shape and extent of aggregation with and without MCMV. This work extends the field of collisions to biologically relevant antigens and provides a novel foundation upon which qualitative sensor technology might be built for selective detection of viruses and other biologically relevant analytes.

Electrochemical Size Measurement and Characterization of Electrodeposited Platinum Nanoparticles at Nanometer Resolution with Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy.

The properties of nanoparticles (NPs) are determined by their size and geometric structures. A reliable determination of NP dimension is critical for understanding their physical and chemical properties, but sizing ultrasmall particles on the order of nanometer (nm) scale in the solution is still challenging. Here, we report the size measurement of PtNP at nanometer resolution by in situ scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), performed with the electrochemical generation and removal of H2 bubble at a reasonably small distance between tip and substrate electrodes in 200 or 500 mM HClO4 solution. A series of different PtNPs or nanoclusters were electrodeposited and in situ measured in the solution, proving the concept of sizing ultrasmall particles using tip generation/substrate collection mode of SECM. This technique could be also used for investigations of other supported ultrasmall metal nanocluster systems.

Electrochemical Nonadiabatic Electron Transfer via Tunneling to Solution Species through Thin Insulating Films.

Described here is a semiquantitative theoretical treatment of the kinetics of outer sphere electrochemical reactions. The framework presented here, which is based on simple physical arguments, predicts heterogeneous rate constants consistent with previous experimental observations (k0 > 10 cm/s). This theory is applied to the analysis of voltammetry experiments involving ultramicroelectrodes modified with thin, insulating oxide films where electronic tunneling between the electrode and redox species in solution (metal-insulator-solution tunneling) is expected to play a prominent role. It is shown that analysis of the voltammetric response of an outer sphere redox couple can be used to track changes in the structure of the adsorbed insulating layer.

A Study of the Mechanism of the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction on Nickel by Surface Interrogation Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy.

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on Ni in alkaline media was investigated by scanning electrochemical microscopy under two operating modes. First, the substrate generation/tip collection mode was employed to extract the "true" cathodic current associated with the HER from the total current in the polarization curve. Compared to metallic Ni, the electrocatalytic activity of the HER is improved in the presence of the low-valence-state oxide of Ni. This result is in agreement with a previous claim that the dissociative adsorption of water can be enhanced at the Ni/Ni oxide interface. Second, the surface-interrogation scanning electrochemical microscopy (SI-SECM) mode was used to directly measure the coverage of the adsorbed hydrogen on Ni at given potentials. Simulation indicates that the hydrogen coverage follows a Frumkin isotherm with respect to the applied potential. On the basis of the combined analysis of the Tafel slope and surface hydrogen coverage, the rate-determining step is suggested to be the adsorption of hydrogen (Volmer step) in the investigated potential window.

Electrodeposition of Isolated Platinum Atoms and Clusters on Bismuth-Characterization and Electrocatalysis.

We describe a method for the electrodeposition of an isolated single Pt atom or small cluster, up to 9 atoms, on a bismuth ultramicroelectrode (UME). This deposition was immediately followed by electrochemical characterization via the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) that occurs readily on the electrodeposited Pt but not on Bi. The observed voltammetric current plateau, even for a single atom, which behaves as an electrode, allows the estimation of deposit size. Pt was plated from solutions of femtomolar PtCl62-, which allowed precise control of the arrival of ions and thus the plating rate on the Bi UME, to one ion every few seconds. This allowed the atom-by-atom fabrication of isolated platinum deposits, ranging from single atoms to 9-atom clusters. The limiting currents in voltammetry gave the size and number of atoms of the clusters. Given the stochasticity of the plating process, we show that the number of atoms plated over a given time (10 and 20 s) follows a Poisson distribution. Taking the potential at a certain current density as a measure of the relative rate of the HER, we found that the potential shifted positively as the size increased, with single atoms showing the largest overpotentials compared to bulk Pt.

In Situ Detection of the Adsorbed Fe(II) Intermediate and the Mechanism of Magnetite Electrodeposition by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy.

Electrodeposition is an important approach that can produce functional compound materials by assembling multiple species at the electrode surface. However, a fundamental understanding of the electrodeposition mechanism has been limited by its complexity and is often gained only through ex situ studies of deposited materials. Here we report on the application of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to enable the in situ, real-time, and quantitative study of electrodeposition and electrodissolution. Specifically, we electrodeposit magnetite (Fe3O4) from an alkaline solution of Fe(III)-triethanolamine as a robust route that can prepare this magnetic and electrocatalytic compound on various conductive substrates. The powerful combination of SECM with cyclic voltammetry (CV) at a gold substrate reveals that the electrodeposition of magnetite requires the preceding adsorption of Fe(II)-triethanolamine on the substrate surface and, subsequently, is mediated through the highly complicated ECadsCmag mechanism, where both chemical steps occur at the substrate surface rather than in the homogeneous solution. SECM-based CV is obtained under high mass-transport conditions and analyzed by the finite element method to kinetically resolve all steps of the ECadsCmag mechanism and quantitatively determine relevant reaction parameters. By contrast, the adsorbed Fe(II) intermediate is unresolvable from co-deposited magnetite in situ by other electrochemical techniques and is undetectable ex situ because of the facile air oxidation of the Fe(II) intermediate. Significantly, SECM-based CV will be useful for the in situ characterization of various electrodeposited compounds to complement their ex situ characterization.

Electrochemical Formation of a p-n Junction on Thin Film Silicon Deposited in Molten Salt.

Herein we report the demonstration of electrochemical deposition of silicon p-n junctions all in molten salt. The results show that a dense robust silicon thin film with embedded junction formation can be produced directly from inexpensive silicates/silicon oxide precursors by a two-step electrodeposition process. The fabricated silicon p-n junction exhibits clear diode rectification behavior and photovoltaic effects, indicating promise for application in low-cost silicon thin film solar cells.