Characterization of Histophilus somni sialic acid uptake mutant (ΔnanP-ΔnanU) using a mouse septicemia and mortality model.

Histophilus somni is an important pathogen of the bovine respiratory disease complex, yet the mechanisms underlying its virulence remain poorly understood. It is known that H. somni can incorporate sialic acid into lipooligosaccharide (LOS), and sialylated H. somni is more resistant to phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing by serum compared to non-sialylated bacteria in vitro. However, the virulence of non-sialylated H. somni has not been evaluated in vivo using an animal model. In this study, we investigated the contribution of sialic acid to virulence by constructing an H. somni sialic acid uptake mutant (ΔnanP-ΔnanU) and comparing the parent and mutant strains in a mouse septicemia and mortality model. Intraperitoneal challenge of mice with wildtype H. somni (1 × 108 colony forming units/mouse, CFU) was lethal to all animals. Mice challenged with three different doses (1, 2, or 5 × 108 CFU/mouse) of an H. somni ΔnanP-ΔnanU sialic acid uptake mutant exhibited survival rates of 90 %, 60 %, and 0 % respectively. High-performance anion exchange chromatography analyses revealed that LOS prepared from both parent and the ΔnanP-ΔnanU mutant strains of H. somni were sialylated. These findings suggest the presence of de novo sialic acid synthesis pathway, although the genes associated with de novo sialic acid synthesis (neuB and neuC) were not identified by genomic analysis. The lower attenuation in mice is most likely attributed to the sialylated LOS of H. somni nanPU mutant.

Comparative study of antibacterial activity and stability of D-enantiomeric and L-enantiomeric bovine NK-lysin peptide NK2A.

L-enantiomers of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are sensitive to proteolytic degradation; however, D-enantiomers of AMPs are expected to provide improved proteolytic resistance. The present study aimed to comparatively investigate the in vitro antibacterial activity, trypsin and serum stability, toxicity, and in vivo antibacterial activity of L-enantiomeric bovine NK2A (L-NK2A) and its D-enantiomeric NK2A (D-NK2A). Circular dichroism spectroscopy of D-NK2A and L-NK2A in anionic liposomes showed α-helical structures and the α-helical conformation of D-NK2A was a mirror image of L-NK2A. Both D-NK2A and L-NK2A displayed minimal in vitro and in vivo toxicities. RP-HPLC and mass spectrometry analyses revealed that D-NK2A, but not L-NK2A, was resistant to trypsin digestion. D-NK2A and L-NK2A showed similar in vitro bacterial killing activities against Histophilus somni. Slightly reduced antibacterial activity was observed when D-NK2A and L-NK2A were pre-incubated with serum. Confocal and transmission electron microscopic findings confirmed that both peptides induced disruption of bacterial inner- and outer-membranes. Improved survivals with D-NK2A treatment were observed when compared to L-NK2A in a murine model of acute H. somni septicemia. We conclude that antibacterial activity and mode of action of NK2A are not chiral specific. With further optimization, D-NK2A may be a viable AMP candidate to combat bacterial infections.

Protection against Mycoplasma bovis infection in calves following intranasal vaccination with modified-live Mannheimia haemolytica expressing Mycoplasma antigens.

Novel live vaccine strains of Mannheimia haemolytica serotypes (St)1 and St6, expressing and secreting inactive yet immunogenic leukotoxin (leukotoxoid) fused to antigenic domains of Mycoplasma bovis Elongation Factor Tu (EFTu) and Heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 were constructed and tested for efficacy in cattle. Control calves were administered an intranasal mixture of M. haemolytica St1 and St6 mutants (ΔlktCAV4) expressing and secreting leukotoxoid while vaccinated calves were administered an intranasal mixture of like M. haemolytica St1 and St6 leukotoxoid mutants coupled to M. bovis antigens (EFTu-Hsp70-ΔlktCAV4). Both M. haemolytica strains were recovered from palatine tonsils up to 34 days post intranasal exposure. On day 35 all calves were exposed to bovine herpes virus-1, four days later lung challenged with virulent M. bovis, then euthanized up to 20 days post-challenge. Results showed all cattle produced systemic antibody responses against M. haemolytica. The vaccinates also produced systemic antibody responses to M. bovis antigen, and concurrent reductions in temperatures, middle ear infections, joint infection and lung lesions versus the control group. Notably, dramatically decreased lung loads of M. bovis were detected in the vaccinated cattle. These observations indicate that the attenuated M. haemolytica vaccine strains expressing Mycoplasma antigens can control M. bovis infection and disease symptoms in a controlled setting.

Septicemic pasteurellosis causing peracute death and necrotizing myositis in a beef heifer calf (Bos taurus) in Alberta, Canada.

Septicemic pasteurellosis is an acute and fatal bacterial disease of cattle and wild ungulates caused by certain serotypes of Pasteurella multocida. Here we report a single case of septicemic pasteurellosis in a 6-month-old, Red Angus heifer from a cow-calf operation in Alberta, Canada. Postmortem examination revealed necrotizing and hemorrhagic myositis, fibrinous pericarditis and multisystemic bacterial emboli. Pasteurella multocida was isolated from muscle in pure culture, and the capsular antigen group was identified as serogroup B using polymerase chain reaction. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of septicemic pasteurellosis in beef cattle in Canada. Key clinical message: Veterinary practitioners and diagnosticians should include septicemic pasteurellosis on their list of differential diagnoses when they encounter similar presentations of peracute death and severe necrotizing myositis in cattle in Canada.

Pasteurellose septicémique causant la mort suraiguë et une myosite nécrosante d'une génisse d'embouche ( Bos taurus ) en Alberta, Canada. La pasteurellose septicémique est une maladie bactérienne aiguë et fatale des bovins et des ongulés sauvages causée par certains sérotypes de Pasteurella multocida. Nous rapportons ici un cas unique de pasteurellose septicémique chez une génisse Red Angus âgée de 6 mois provenant d'un élevage vache-veau en Alberta, Canada. L'examen post-mortem a révélé une myosite nécrosante et hémorragique, une péricardite fibrineuse et des embolies bactériennes multi-systémiques. Pasteurella multocida fut isolé du muscle en culture pure, et l'antigène de groupe capsulaire fut identifié comme étant le sérogroupe B à l'aide de la réaction d'amplification en chaîne utilisant la polymérase. À notre connaissance ceci représente le premier cas rapporté de pasteurelle septicémique chez des bovins d'embouche au Canada.Message clinique clé:Les vétérinaires praticiens et les diagnosticiens devraient inclure la pasteurellose septicémique sur leur liste de diagnostic différentiel lorsqu'ils rencontrent des présentations similaires de mortalité suraiguë et de myosite nécrosante sévère chez des bovins au Canada.(Traduit par Dr Serge Messier).

Complete genome sequence of a Histophilus somni strain 91 isolated from a beef calf with pneumonia.

Histophilus somni is an important causative agent of bovine respiratory disease complex. Here, we report the complete genome sequence of a Histophilus somni strain 91, which was isolated from a pneumonic lung tissue sample collected from a beef calf.

Complete hybrid genome assembly of Mannheimia haemolytica serotype A2 strain D95 isolated from ovine lung.

Mannheimia haemolytica is a major bacterial pathogen associated with broncho- and fibrinous pneumonia in ruminants. Here, we report the complete genome sequence of an isolate of serotype A2 M. haemolytica (D95) recovered from a pneumonic ovine lung. The D95 genome has a size of 2.7 Mb and contains 2,720 genes.

Transcriptomic profiles of Mannheimia haemolytica planktonic and biofilm associated cells.

Mannheimia haemolytica is the principal agent contributing to bovine respiratory disease and can form biofilms with increased resistance to antibiotic treatment and host immune defenses. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying M. haemolytica biofilm formation, transcriptomic analyses were performed with mRNAs sequenced from planktonic and biofilm cultures of pathogenic serotypes 1 (St 1; strain D153) and St 6 (strain D174), and St 2 (strain D35). The three M. haemolytica serotypes were cultured in two different media, Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI) 1640 and brain heart infusion (BHI) to form the biofilms. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that the functions of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in biofilm associated cells were not significantly affected by the two media. A total of 476 to 662 DEGs were identified between biofilm associated cells and planktonic cells cultured under BHI medium. Functional analysis of the DEGs indicated that those genes were significantly enriched in translation and many biosynthetic processes. There were 234 DEGs identified in St 1 and 6, but not in St 2. The functions of the DEGs included structural constituents of ribosomes, transmembrane proton transportation, proton channels, and proton-transporting ATP synthase. Potentially, some of the DEGs identified in this study provide insight into the design of new M. haemolytica vaccine candidates.

An injectable subunit vaccine containing Elongation Factor Tu and Heat Shock Protein 70 partially protects American bison from Mycoplasma bovis infection.

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is the etiologic agent of high mortality epizootics of chronic respiratory disease in American bison (Bison bison). Despite the severity of the disease, no efficacious commercial vaccines have been licensed for the prevention of M. bovis infection in bison. Elongation factor thermal unstable (EFTu) and Heat Shock Protein 70 (Hsp70, DnaK) are highly conserved, constitutively expressed proteins that have previously been shown to provide protection against M. bovis infection in cattle. To assess the suitability of EFTu and Hsp70 as vaccine antigens in bison, the immune response to and protection conferred by an injectable, adjuvanted subunit vaccine comprised of recombinantly expressed EFTu and Hsp70 was evaluated. Vaccinates developed robust antibody and cellular immune responses against both EFTu and Hsp70 antigens. To assess vaccine efficacy, unvaccinated control and vaccinated bison were experimentally challenged with bovine herpes virus-1 (BHV-1) 4 days prior to intranasal infection with M. bovis. Vaccinated bison displayed reductions in joint infection, lung bacterial loads, and lung lesions compared to unvaccinated controls. Together, these results showed that this subunit vaccine reduced clinical disease and bacterial dissemination from the lungs in M. bovis challenged bison and support the further development of protein subunit vaccines against M. bovis for use in bison.

Comparative genome analysis of an avirulent and two virulent strains of avian Pasteurella multocida reveals candidate genes involved in fitness and pathogenicity.

BACKGROUND: Pasteurella multocida is the etiologic agent of fowl cholera, a highly contagious and severe disease of poultry causing significant mortality and morbidity throughout the world. All types of poultry are susceptible to fowl cholera. Turkeys are most susceptible to the peracute/acute forms of the disease while chickens are most susceptible to the acute and chronic forms of the disease. The whole genome of the Pm70 strain of P. multocida was sequenced and annotated in 2001. The Pm70 strain is not virulent to chickens and turkeys. In contrast, strains X73 and P1059 are highly virulent to turkeys, chickens, and other poultry species. In this study, we sequenced the genomes of P. multocida strains X73 and P1059 and undertook a detailed comparative genome analysis with the avirulent Pm70 strain. The goal of this study was to identify candidate genes in the virulent strains that may be involved in pathogenicity of fowl cholera disease. RESULTS: Comparison of virulent versus avirulent avian P. multocida genomes revealed 336 unique genes among the P1059 and/or X73 genomes compared to strain Pm70. Genes of interest within this subset included those encoding an L-fucose transport and utilization system, several novel sugar transport systems, and several novel hemagglutinins including one designated PfhB4. Additionally, substantial amino acid variation was observed in many core outer membrane proteins and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis confirmed a higher dN/dS ratio within proteins localized to the outer membrane. CONCLUSIONS: Comparative analyses of highly virulent versus avirulent avian P. multocida identified a number of genomic differences that may shed light on the ability of highly virulent strains to cause disease in the avian host, including those that could be associated with enhanced virulence or fitness.

Bivalent vaccination against pneumonic pasteurellosis in domestic sheep and goats with modified-live in-frame lktA deletion mutants of Mannheimia haemolytica.

A temperature-sensitive shuttle vector, pBB80C, was utilized to generate in-frame deletion mutants of the leukotoxin structural gene (lktA) of Mannheimia haemolytica serotypes 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 12. Culture supernatants from the mutants contained a truncated protein with an approximate molecular weight of 66 kDa which was reactive to anti-leukotoxin monoclonal antibody. No protein reactive to anti-LktA monoclonal antibody was detected at the molecular weight 100-105 kDa of native LktA. Sheep and goats vaccinated intramuscularly with a mixture of serotypes 5 and 6 mutants were resistant to virulent challenge with a mixture of the wild-type parent strains. These vaccinates responded serologically to both vaccine serotypes and exhibited markedly-reduced lung lesion volume and pulmonary infectious load compared to control animals. Control animals yielded a mixture of serotypes from lung lobes, but the proportion even within an individual animal varied widely from 95% serotype 5-95% serotype 6. Cultures recovered from liver were homogeneous, but two animals yielded serotype 5 and the other two yielded serotype 6 in pure culture.

Enhanced phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing of Mannheimia haemolytica serotype 1 following in-frame CMP-sialic acid synthetase (neuA) gene deletion.

IMPORTANCE: The Gram-negative coccobacillus Mannheimia haemolytica is a natural inhabitant of the upper respiratory tract in ruminants and the most common bacterial agent involved in bovine respiratory disease complex development. Key virulence factors harbored by M. haemolytica are leukotoxin, lipopolysaccharide, capsule, adhesins, and neuraminidase which are involved in evading innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we have shown that CMP-sialic acid synthetase (neuA) is necessary for the incorporation of sialic acid onto the membrane, and inactivation of neuA results in increased phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing of M. haemolytica, thus demonstrating that sialylation contributes to the virulence of M. haemolytica.

Differential identification of Mannheimia haemolytica genotypes 1 and 2 using colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification.

OBJECTIVE: Mannheimia haemolytica is the primary bacterial pathogen associated with bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). While M. haemolytica has been subdivided into 12 capsular serotypes (ST), ST1, ST2 and ST6 are commonly isolated from cattle. More recently, M. haemolytica strains isolated from North American cattle have been classified into genotypes 1 (ST2) and 2 (ST1 and ST6). Of the two genotypes, genotype 1 strains are frequently isolated from healthy animals whereas, genotype 2 strains are predominantly isolated from BRDC animals. However, isolation of both genotypes from pneumonic lung samples can complicate diagnosis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay to differentiate M. haemolytica genotypes. RESULTS: The genotype specificity of the LAMP was tested using purified genomic DNA from 22 M. haemolytica strains (10 genotype 1, 12 genotype 2) and strains from four related Pasteurellaceae species; Bibersteinia trehalosi, Mannheimia glucosida, Pasteurella multocida, and Histophilus somni. Genotype 1 (adhesin pseudogene B1) specific-LAMP reactions amplified DNA only from genotype 1 strains while genotype 2 (adhesin G) reactions amplified DNA only from genotype 2 strains. The overall detection sensitivity and specificity of the newly developed colorimetric LAMP assay for each genotype were 100%. The limits of detection of two LAMP assays were 1-100 target gene copies per reaction. LAMP primers designed in this study may help the differential identification of M. haemolytica genotypes 1 and 2.

Mucosal and parenteral vaccination against pneumonic pasteurellosis in cattle with a modified-live in-frame lktA deletion mutant of Mannheimia haemolytica.

A new temperature-conditional shuttle vector, pBB80C, was constructed and utilized to generate an in-frame deletion in the leukotoxin structural gene of Mannheimia haemolytica serotype 1. Culture supernatants from the mutant contained no detectable cytotoxicity to BL-3 lymphocyte targets, and contained a new protein with an approximate molecular weight of 66 kDa which was reactive to anti-leukotoxin monoclonal antibody. No protein reactive to anti-LktA monoclonal antibody was detected at the molecular weight 100-105 kDa of native LktA. Calves vaccinated mucosally by top-dressing the live mutant onto feed, or parenterally by subcutaneous injection, were resistant to virulent challenge with the parent strain. Serologic antibody response, reduction in lung lesion, and reduction in pulmonary infectious load were greater among calves mucosally vaccinated than those which were vaccinated by injection.

Cross-protection against fowl cholera disease with the use of recombinant Pasteurella multocida FHAB2 peptides vaccine.

It has been demonstrated that fhaB2 (filamentous hemagglutinin) is an important virulence factor for Pasteurella multocida in development of fowl cholera disease and that vaccination with recombinant FHAB2 peptides derived from P. multocida, P-1059 (serotype A:3) protects turkeys against P-1059 challenge. Here the hypothesis that vaccination with the same rFHAB2 peptides could cross-protect turkeys against challenge with P. multocida chi73 (serotype A:1) was examined. Three rFHAB2 peptides were purified and pooled, and two doses, consisting of equal amounts of each, were administered subcutaneously to turkeys at 2-wk intervals. Simultaneously, control birds were administered sham inoculations. One week later, vaccinates and controls were challenged intranasally with P-1059 or chi73. The results showed vaccination with rFHAB2 peptides significantly protected turkeys against lethal challenge from both P. multocida serotypes (P < 0.01). The high degree of FHAB2 conservation across serotypes likely allow the observed cross-protection.

The Effects of Ursolic Acid Treatment on Immunopathogenesis Following Mannheimia haemolytica Infections.

Bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) is a costly economic and health burden for the dairy and feedlot cattle industries. BRDC is a multifactorial disease, often involving viral and bacterial pathogens, which makes it difficult to effectively treat or vaccinate against. Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) are common commensal bacteria found in the nasopharynx of healthy cattle; however, following environmental and immunological stressors, these bacteria can rapidly proliferate and spread to the lower respiratory tract, giving rise to pneumonic disease. Severe MH infections are often characterized by leukocyte infiltration and dysregulated inflammatory responses in the lungs. IL-17A is thought to play a key role in this inflammatory response by inducing neutrophilia, activating innate and adaptive immune cells, and further exacerbating lung congestion. Herein, we used a small molecule inhibitor, ursolic acid (UA), to suppress IL-17A production and to determine the downstream impact on the immune response and disease severity following MH infection in calves. We hypothesized that altering IL-17A signaling during MH infections may have therapeutic effects by reducing immune-mediated lung inflammation and improving disease outcome. Two independent studies were performed (Study 1 = 32 animals and Study 2 = 16 animals) using 4-week-old male Holstein calves, which were divided into 4 treatment group including: (1) non-treated and non-challenged, (2) non-treated and MH-challenged, (3) UA-treated and non-challenged, and (4) UA-treated and MH-challenged. Based on the combined studies, we observed a tendency (p = 0.0605) toward reduced bacterial burdens in the lungs of UA-treated animals, but did not note a significant difference in gross (p = 0.3343) or microscopic (p = 0.1917) pathology scores in the lungs. UA treatment altered the inflammatory environment in the lung tissues following MH infection, reducing the expression of IL-17A (p = 0.0870), inflammatory IL-6 (p = 0.0209), and STAT3 (p = 0.0205) compared to controls. This reduction in IL-17A signaling also appeared to alter the downstream expression of genes associated with innate defenses (BAC5, DEFB1, and MUC5AC) and lung remodeling (MMP9 and TIMP-1). Taken together, these results support our hypothesis that IL-17A signaling may contribute to lung immunopathology following MH infections, and further understanding of this inflammatory pathway could expand therapeutic intervention strategies for managing BRDC.

Identification of a reliable fixative solution to preserve the complex architecture of bacterial biofilms for scanning electron microscopy evaluation.

Bacterial biofilms are organized sessile communities of bacteria enclosed in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). To analyze organization of bacteria and EPS in high resolution and high magnification by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), it is important to preserve the complex architecture of biofilms. Therefore, fixation abilities of formalin, glutaraldehyde, and Methacarn (methanol/chloroform/acetic acid-6:3:1) fixatives were evaluated to identify which fixative would best preserve the complex structure of bacterial biofilms. Economically important Gram-negative Mannheimia haemolytica, the major pathogen associated with bovine respiratory disease complex, and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, the major cause of chronic mastitis in cattle, bacteria were selected since both form biofilms on solid-liquid interface. For SEM analysis, round glass coverslips were placed into the wells of 24-well plates and diluted M. haemolytica or S. aureus cultures were added, and incubated at 37°C for 48-72 h under static growth conditions. Culture media were aspirated and biofilms were fixed with an individual fixative for 48 h. SEM examination revealed that all three fixatives were effective preserving the bacterial cell morphology, however only Methacarn fixative could consistently preserve the complex structure of biofilms. EPS layers were clearly visible on the top, in the middle, and in the bottom of the biofilms with Methacarn fixative. Biomass and three-dimensional structure of the biofilms were further confirmed spectrophotometrically following crystal violet staining and by confocal microscopy after viability staining. These findings demonstrate that Methacarn fixative solution is superior to the other fixatives evaluated to preserve the complex architecture of biofilms grown on glass coverslips for SEM evaluation.

Sialic acid uptake is necessary for virulence of Pasteurella multocida in turkeys.

Many pathogenic bacteria employ systems to incorporate sialic acid into their membranes as a means of protection against host defense mechanisms. In Pasteurella multocida, an opportunistic pathogen which causes diseases of economic importance in a wide range of animal species, sialic acid uptake plays a role in a mouse model of systemic pasteurellosis. To further investigate the importance of sialic acid uptake in pathogenesis, sialic acid uptake mutants of an avian strain of P. multocida P-1059 (A:3) were constructed, characterized, and an in-frame sialic acid uptake deletion mutant was assessed for virulence in turkeys. Inactivation of sialic acid uptake resulted in a high degree of attenuation when turkeys were challenged either intranasally or intravenously. Resistance of the sialic acid uptake mutant to killing by turkey serum complement was similar to that of the parent, suggesting other mechanisms are responsible for attenuation of virulence in turkeys.

Protection against fowl cholera conferred by vaccination with recombinant Pasteurella multocida filamentous hemagglutinin peptides.

Three gene fragments, derived from Pasteurella multocida strain P-1059 (serotype A:3), encoding approximately the 5' one-third of fhaB2 were overexpressed individually in Escherichia coli. The recombinant peptides were purified, pooled, and administered to turkey poults to evaluate immunity. The results showed that turkeys immunized twice with the recombinant peptides were significantly protected against intranasal challenge with P. multocida strain P-1059. Vaccination elicited antibody responses, based on Western blotting, that were reactive with a wild-type P-1059 cellular product approximately 170 kDa in size and multiple high molecular weight products in culture supernatant. These antibodies did not react with cell or supernatant blots of a P-1059 fhaB2 isogenic mutant. Pasteurella multocida fhaB2 genes of a bovine strain (A:3) and an avian strain (F:3) are highly conserved as is the portion of P-1059 fhaB2 examined here (>99% identities). These findings suggest that broad cross-protection against this heterogeneous pathogen may be achievable through immunization with specific recombinant FHAB2 peptides.

Synthetic bovine NK-lysin-derived peptide (bNK2A) does not require intra-chain disulfide bonds for bactericidal activity.

Bovine NK-lysins are cationic antimicrobial proteins found predominantly in the cytosolic granules of T lymphocytes and NK-cells. NK-lysin-derived peptides show antimicrobial activity against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Mature NK-lysin protein has six well-conserved cysteine residues. This study was performed to assess whether synthetic bovine NK-lysin-derived peptide (bNK2A) forms disulfide bonds and whether disulfide bonds were essential for bNK2A antimicrobial activity. Two 30-mer bNK2A peptides were synthesized: one with two original cysteines and an analog with cysteines substituted with two serines. Mass spectrometry revealed lack of disulfide bonds in original peptide while CD spectrophotometry showed both peptides have similar α-helical structures. Since both peptides were equally inhibitory to Histophilus somni, disulfide bonds appeared dispensable for synthetic bNK2A peptide antibacterial activity.

A multiplex PCR assay for molecular capsular serotyping of Mannheimia haemolytica serotypes 1, 2, and 6.

Mannheimia haemolytica is an important respiratory pathogen of ruminants. Of the 12 capsular serovars identified, 1 and 6 are most frequently associated with disease in cattle, while 2 is largely a commensal. Comparative analysis of 24 M. haemolytica genomes was used to identify unique genes associated with capsular polysaccharide synthesis as amplification targets in a multiplex PCR assay to discriminate between serotype 1, 2, and 6 strains. The specificity of serotype specific gene targets was evaluated against 47 reference strains representing 12 known serovars of M. haemolytica and 101 field isolates identified through antisera agglutination as serotypes 1, 2, or 6. The results suggest this simple and cost-effective serotype specific PCR assay can be used as an alternative to agglutination based techniques to serotype the majority of M. haemolytica collected from bovines, thus averting the need to use animals and invest in expensive sera development for agglutination assays. In addition, the gene targets identified in this study can be used in silico to identify serotype 1, 2, and 6 strains in sequenced M. haemolytica isolates without the need for culture based analysis.