Molecular Structure and Conformation of Biodegradable Water-Soluble Polymers Control Adsorption and Transport in Model Soil Mineral Systems.

Water-soluble polymers (WSPs) are used in diverse applications, including agricultural formulations, that can result in the release of WSPs to soils. WSP biodegradability in soils is desirable to prevent long-term accumulation and potential associated adverse effects. In this work, we assessed adsorption of five candidate biodegradable WSPs with varying chemistry, charge, and polarity characteristics (i.e., dextran, diethylaminoethyl dextran, carboxymethyl dextran, polyethylene glycol monomethyl ether, and poly-l-lysine) and of one nonbiodegradable WSP (poly(acrylic acid)) to sand and iron oxide-coated sand particles that represent important soil minerals. Combined adsorption studies using solution-depletion measurements, direct surface adsorption techniques, and column transport experiments over varying solution pH and ionic strengths revealed electrostatics dominating interactions of charged WSPs with the sorbents as well as WSP conformations and packing densities in the adsorbed states. Hydrogen bonding controls adsorption of noncharged WSPs. Under transport in columns, WSP adsorption exhibited fast and slow kinetic adsorption regimes with time scales of minutes to hours. Slow adsorption kinetics in soil may lead to enhanced transport but also shorter lifetimes of biodegradable WSPs, assuming more rapid biodegradation when dissolved than adsorbed. This work establishes a basis for understanding the coupled adsorption and biodegradation dynamics of biodegradable WSPs in agricultural soils.

The Effect of Aeration on Mn(II) Sorbed to Clay Minerals and Its Impact on Cd Retention.

Manganese is a redox-sensitive element in soils and sediments that plays an important role in the retention of trace elements. Under anoxic conditions, clay minerals were shown to increase Cd retention by favoring the precipitation of Mn(II) phases. In this study, we investigated the influence of aeration on anoxically formed Mn solid phases and its impact on Cd retention in the presence of two clay minerals with low Fe contents, a natural kaolinite (KGa-1b) and a synthetic montmorillonite (Syn-1). Ca-saturated KGa-1b and Syn-1 were pre-equilibrated with Mn2+ and Cd2+ under anoxic conditions for 1 or 30 days and subsequently exposed to air for 1 or 30 days. The analysis with synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) revealed that extended anoxic pre-equilibration (30 days) partially prevented the oxidation of sorbed Mn(II) (MnSiO3 and Mn(II)Al-LDH). Extended exposure to ambient air and short anoxic pre-equilibration favored the formation of feitknechtite (ß-MnOOH) and birnessite (δ-MnO2). Aeration resulted in a decrease of pH and a net release of Cd2+ into the solution, indicating that Cd re-sorption by Mn(III/IV)-phases was insufficient to compensate for the release of Cd2+ due to dissolution of Mn(II)-containing phases and the decrease in pH. Our results demonstrate the significance of clay minerals in the (trans)formation of Mn-containing phases and their impact on trace metal retention in environments undergoing fluctuating redox conditions.

Clarithromycin and Tetracycline Binding to Soil Humic Acid in the Absence and Presence of Calcium.

Numerous ionizable organic micropollutants contain positively charged moieties at pH values typical of environmental systems. Describing organic cation and zwitterion interaction with dissolved natural organic matter requires explicit consideration of the pH-dependent speciation of both sorbate and sorbent. We studied the pH-, ionic strength-, and concentration-dependent binding of relatively large, organic cations and zwitterions (viz., the antibiotics clarithromycin and tetracycline) to dissolved humic acid in the absence and presence of Ca(2+) and evaluated the ability of the NICA-Donnan model to describe the data. Clarithromycin interaction with dissolved humic acid was well described by the model including the competitive effect of Ca(2+) on clarithromycin binding over a wide range of solution conditions by considering only the binding of the cationic species to low proton-affinity sites in humic acid. Tetracycline possesses multiple ionizable moieties and forms complexes with Ca(2+). An excellent fit to experimental data was achieved by considering tetracycline cation interaction with both low and high proton-affinity sites of humic acid and zwitterion interaction with high proton-affinity sites. In contrast to clarithromycin, tetracycline binding to humic acid increased in the presence of Ca(2+), especially under alkaline conditions. Model calculations indicate that this increase is due to electrostatic interaction of positively charged tetracycline-Ca complexes with humic acid rather than due to the formation of ternary complexes, except at very low TC concentrations.

Temporal development of arsenic speciation and extractability in acidified and non-acidified paddy soil amended with silicon-rich fly ash and manganese- or zinc-oxides under flooded and drainage conditions.

Oxides of silicon (Si), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) have been used as soil amendments to reduce As mobility and uptake in paddy soil systems. However, these amendments are hypothesized to be affected differently depending on the soil pH and their effect on As speciation in rice paddy systems is not fully understood. Herein, we used a microcosm experiment to investigate the effects of natural Si-rich fly ash and synthetic Mn and Zn oxides on the temporal development of porewater chemistry, including aqueous As speciation (As(III), As(V), MMA, DMA, and DMMTA) and solid-phase As solubility, in a naturally calcareous soil with or without soil acidification (with sulfuric acid) during 28 days of flooding and subsequent 14 days of drainage. We found that soil acidification to pH 4.5 considerably increased the solubility of Si, Fe, Mn, and Zn compared to the non-acidified soil. Additions of Mn and Zn oxides decreased the concentrations of dissolved arsenite and arsenate in the non-acidified soil whereas additions of Zn oxide and combined Si-Zn oxides increased them in the acidified soil. The Si-rich fly ash did not increase dissolved Si and As in the acidified and non-acidified soils. Dimethylated monothioarsenate (DMMTA) was mainly observed in the acidified soil during the later stage of soil flooding. The initial 28 days of soil flooding decreased the levels of soluble and exchangeable As and increased As associated with Mn oxides, whereas the subsequent 14 days of soil drainage reversed the trend. This study highlighted that soil acidification considerably controlled the solubilization of Ca and Fe, thus influencing the soil pH-Eh buffering capacity, the solubility of Si, Mn, and Zn oxides, and the mobility of different As species in carbonate-rich and acidic soils under redox fluctuations.

Simultaneously decreasing arsenic and cadmium in rice by soil sulfate and limestone amendment under intermittent flooding.

Water management in paddy soils can effectively reduce the soil-to-rice grain transfer of either As or Cd, but not of both elements simultaneously due to the higher mobility of As under reducing and Cd under oxidizing soil conditions. Limestone amendment, the common form of liming, is well known for decreasing Cd accumulation in rice grown on acidic soils. Sulfate amendment was suggested to effectively decrease As accumulation in rice, especially under intermittent soil flooding. To study the unknown effects of combined sulfate and limestone amendment under intermittent flooding for simultaneously decreasing As and Cd in rice, we performed a pot experiment using an acidic sandy loam paddy soil. We also included a clay loam paddy soil to study the role of soil texture in low-As rice production under intermittent flooding. We found that liming not only decreased rice Cd concentrations but also greatly decreased dimethylarsenate (DMA) accumulation in rice. We hypothesize that this is due to suppressed sulfate reduction, As methylation, and As thiolation by liming in the sulfate-amended soil and a higher share of deprotonated DMA at higher pH which is taken up less readily than protonated DMA. Decreased gene abundance of potential soil sulfate-reducers by liming further supported our hypothesis. Combined sulfate and limestone amendment to the acidic sandy loam soil produced rice with 43% lower inorganic As, 72% lower DMA, and 68% lower Cd compared to the control soil without amendment. A tradeoff between soil aeration and water availability was observed for the clay loam soil, suggesting difficulties to decrease As in rice while avoiding plant water stress under intermittent flooding in fine-textured soils. Our results suggest that combining sulfate amendment, liming, and intermittent flooding can help to secure rice safety when the presence of both As and Cd in coarse-textured soils is of concern.

Copper redox transformation and complexation by reduced and oxidized soil humic Acid. 2. Potentiometric titrations and dialysis cell experiments.

Cation binding and electron transfer reactions of humic substances determine copper speciation in redox-dynamic systems, but quantitative studies for Cu+ binding to humic substances are lacking. We investigated reduction of Cu2+ and binding of Cu+ at pH 7.0 in a dialysis cell experiment using reduced and reoxidized soil humic acid (HA) as reductant and sorbent at copper loadings of 9.5-600 mmol kg(-1). The data were used to quantitatively explain the interaction between cation binding and electron transfer processes that determine copper speciation in the presence of HA under anoxic and oxic conditions. Addition of Cu2+ to reduced HA resulted in almost complete reduction to Cu(I) within 1 h. Reduction was also significant under oxic conditions. The slow decrease of the Cu(I) fraction was attributed to formation of Cu(0) based on thermodynamic consideration. Cu+ binding to HA was found to be strong compared to other chalcophile cations like Ag+ or Cd2+. Our results indicate that Cu+ and Cu2+ isotherms exhibit a redox potential-dependent intersection point. According to the differences in Cu+ and Cu2+ binding, the presence of HA was found to extend the stability field of Cu(II) to moderately reducing conditions and to reduce the stability field of Cu(0) due to the formation of Cu(I) complexes.

Copper redox transformation and complexation by reduced and oxidized soil humic acid. 1. X-ray absorption spectroscopy study.

Natural organic matter (NOM) exerts strong influence on copper speciation and bioavailability in soils and aquatic systems. In redox-dynamic environments, electron transfer reactions between copper and redox-active moieties of NOM may trigger Cu(I) and Cu(0) formation. To date, little is known about Cu-NOM redox interactions and Cu(I) binding to NOM. Here, we present X-ray absorption spectroscopy results on copper redox transformations upon addition of Cu(II) or Cu(I) to untreated and electrochemically reduced soil humic acid (HA) under oxic and anoxic conditions. Both untreated and reduced HA mediated copper redox transformations. Under anoxic conditions, Cu(II) and Cu(I) added to reduced HA were primarily complexed and thereby stabilized as Cu(I)-HA at low loadings, whereas high copper loadings resulted in the additional formation of Cu(0) nanoparticles (16-64% of total copper). Cu(I) bound to HA was predominantly 2-fold coordinated and to a lower extent 3- to 4-fold coordinated, with a contribution of at least one nitrogen and/or sulfur ligand group. Under oxic conditions, Cu(II)-HA complexes prevailed, but smaller fractions of copper were also stabilized as Cu(I)-HA in a 3- to 4-fold coordination. Our results show that Cu-HA redox interactions are strongly affected by binding of Cu(II) and Cu(I) to HA and that HA contributes to the stabilization of Cu(I) against disproportionation.

Transport of double-stranded ribonucleic acids (dsRNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) in sand and iron oxide-coated sand columns under varying solution chemistries.

Assessing ecological risks associated with the use of genetically modified RNA interference crops demands an understanding of the fate of crop-released insecticidal double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules in soils. We studied the adsorption of one dsRNA and two double-stranded DNA as model nucleic acids (NAs) during transport through sand- and iron oxide-coated sand (IOCS)-filled columns over a range of solution pH and ionic compositions. Consistent with NA-sand electrostatic repulsion, we observed only slight retention of NAs in sand columns. Conversely, pronounced NA retention in IOCS columns is consistent with strong and irreversible NA adsorption involving electrostatic attraction to and inner-sphere complex formation of NAs with iron oxide coatings. Adsorption of NAs to iron oxides revealed a fast and a slow kinetic adsorption regime, possibly caused by the excluded-area effect. Adsorption of NAs to sand and IOCS increased in the presence of dissolved Mg2+ and with increasing ionic strength, reflecting cation-bridging and screening of repulsive electrostatics, respectively. The co-solute phosphate and a pre-adsorbed dissolved organic matter isolate competitively suppressed dsRNA adsorption to IOCS. Similar adsorption characteristics of dsRNA and similarly sized DNA suggest that existing information on DNA adsorption to soil particles helps in predicting adsorption and fate of dsRNA molecules in soils.

Decreasing arsenic in rice: Interactions of soil sulfate amendment and water management.

Accumulation of inorganic arsenic (iAs) and dimethylarsenate (DMA) in rice threatens human health and rice yield, respectively. We studied the yet unclear interactions of soil sulfate amendment and water management for decreasing As accumulation in rice grain in a pot experiment. We show that soil sulfate amendment (+200 mg S/kg soil) decreased grain iAs by 44% without clearly increasing grain DMA under intermittent flooding from booting stage to maturation. Under continuous flooding during this period, sulfate amendment decreased grain iAs only by 25% but increased grain DMA by 68%. The mechanisms of sulfate amendment effects on grain iAs were not explained by porewater composition or in-planta As sequestration but were allocated to the rhizosphere. Grain iAs closely correlated with As in the root iron-plaque (r = 0.92) which was effectively decreased by sulfate amendment and may have acted as an iAs source for rice uptake. Although both sulfate amendment and intermittent flooding substantially increased porewater DMA concentrations, it was the continuous flooding, irrespective of sulfate amendment, that resulted in rice straighthead disease with 47-55% less yield and 258-320% more DMA in grains than intermittent flooding. This study suggests that combining soil sulfate amendment and intermittent flooding can help to secure the quantity and quality of rice produced in As-affected areas. Our results also imply the key role of rhizosphere processes in controlling both iAs and DMA accumulation in rice which should be elucidated in the future.

Polymerization of silicate on hematite surfaces and its influence on arsenic sorption.

Iron oxides and oxyhydroxides are important sorbents for arsenic in soils, sediments, and water treatment systems, but their long-term potential for arsenic retention may be diminished by the formation of polymeric silicate on their surfaces. To study these interactions, we first investigated the sorption of silicate to colloidal hematite (α-Fe(2)O(3)) in short-term (48 h) and long-term (210 days) batch experiments. The polymerization of silicate on the hematite surface was monitored by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. The pH dependence of silicate sorption exhibited a maximum between pH 9.0 and 9.5. The condensation of silicate on hematite surfaces adsorbed from monomeric silicate solutions steadily continued over the 210 day period, whereby surface polymerization was slower at pH 3 than at pH 6. The effect of silicate surface polymerization on arsenate and arsenite sorption was studied by use of hematite pre-equilibrated with silicate for different time periods of up to 210 days. The competitive effect of silicate on arsenate and arsenite sorption increased with increasing silicate pre-equilibration time. Only under strongly acidic conditions (pH 3), where silicate sorption was weakest and surface polymerization was slowest, was arsenate and arsenite sorption not affected by the presence of silicate. We conclude that the long-term exposure to dissolved silicate can decrease the potential of natural iron (oxyhydr)oxides for adsorbing inorganic arsenic.

Reduction and reoxidation of humic acid: influence on speciation of cadmium and silver.

Naturally occurring variations of redox conditions are considered to affect the interactions between trace metals and humic substances in a 2-fold manner. First, additional proton binding sites of humic substances formed under reducing conditions may also act as binding sites for trace metals. Second, reduced humic substances may transfer electrons to redox-active trace metals. In this study, we investigated the influence of electrochemical reduction of a purified soil humic acid on the binding of two chalcophile metal cations of environmental concern, Cd(2+) and Ag(+), with metal titrations conducted under monitored redox conditions. The binding of cadmium to reduced humic acid was slightly enhanced compared to humic acid reoxidized by O(2) and quantitatively in excellent agreement with the increase in binding sites formed upon reduction. Competitive experiments with calcium indicated that sulfur-containing sites played a minor role in cadmium binding, although sulfur K-edge XANES revealed that 36% of humic sulfur was in a reduced oxidation state. In all experiments with silver, the formation of Ag(0) was detected with transmission electron microscopy. Free Ag(+) activities under reducing conditions were controlled by Ag(0) formation rather than by binding to humic acid.

Copper mobilisation from Cu sulphide minerals by methanobactin: Effect of pH, oxygen and natural organic matter.

Aerobic methane oxidation (MOx) depends critically on the availability of copper (Cu) as a crucial component of the metal centre of particulate methane monooxygenase, one of the main enzymes involved in MOx. Some methanotrophs have developed Cu acquisition strategies, in which they exude Cu-binding ligands termed chalkophores under conditions of low Cu availability. A well-characterised chalkophore is methanobactin (mb), exuded by the microaerophilic methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. Aerobic methanotrophs generally reside close to environmental oxic-anoxic interfaces, where the formation of Cu sulphide phases can aggravate the limitation of bioavailable Cu due to their low solubility. The reactivity of chalkophores towards such Cu sulphide mineral phases has not yet been investigated. In this study, a combination of dissolution experiments and equilibrium modelling was used to examine the dissolution and solubility of bulk and nanoparticulate Cu sulphide minerals in the presence of mb as influenced by pH, oxygen and natural organic matter. In general, we show that mb is effective at increasing the dissolved Cu concentrations in the presence of a variety of Cu sulphide phases that may potentially limit Cu bioavailability. More Cu was mobilised per mole of mb from Cu sulphide nanoparticles compared with well-crystalline bulk covellite (CuS). In general, the efficacy of mb at mobilising Cu from Cu sulphides is pH-dependent. At lower pH, e.g. pH 5, mb was ineffective at solubilizing Cu. The presence of mb increased dissolved Cu concentrations between pH 7 and 8.5, where the solubility of all Cu sulphides is generally low, both in the presence and absence of oxygen. These results suggest that chalkophore-promoted Cu mobilisation from sulphide phases is an effective extracellular mechanism for increasing dissolved Cu concentrations at oxic-anoxic interfaces, particularly in the neutral to slightly alkaline pH range. This suggests that aerobic methanotrophs may be able to fulfil their Cu requirements via the exudation of mb in natural environments where the bioavailability of Cu is constrained by very stable Cu sulphide phases.

Isolation and purification of Cu-free methanobactin from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

BACKGROUND: The isolation of highly pure copper-free methanobactin is a prerequisite for the investigation of the biogeochemical functions of this chalkophore molecule produced by methane oxidizing bacteria. Here, we report a purification method for methanobactin from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b cultures based on reversed-phase HPLC fractionation used in combination with a previously reported resin extraction. HPLC eluent fractions of the resin extracted product were collected and characterized with UV-vis, FT-IR, and C-1s NEXAFS spectroscopy, as well as with elemental analysis and ESI-MS. RESULTS: The results showed that numerous compounds other than methanobactin were present in the isolate obtained with resin extraction. Molar C/N ratios, mass spectrometry measurements, and UV-vis spectra indicated that methanobactin was only present in one of the HPLC fractions. On a mass basis, methanobactin carbon contributed only 32% to the total organic carbon isolated with resin extraction. Our spectroscopic results implied that besides methanobactin, the organic compounds in the resin extract comprised breakdown products of methanobactin as well as polysaccharide-like substances. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that a purification step is indispensable in addition to resin extraction in order to obtain pure methanobactin. The proposed HPLC purification procedure is suitable for semi-preparative work and provides copper-free methanobactin.

Two-year and multi-site field trials to evaluate soil amendments for controlling cadmium accumulation in rice grain.

Representing the staple crop for half of the world population, rice can accumulate high levels of cadmium (Cd) in its grain, posing concerns on food safety. Different soil amendments have been proposed to decrease Cd accumulation in rice grain by either decreasing soil Cd availability, introducing competitive ions on Cd uptake, or down-regulating the expression of transporters for Cd uptake. However, the effectiveness of soil amendments applied alone or in combinations needs to be tested under field conditions. Here, we present results of field trials with two rice cultivars differing in Cd accumulation grown at three field sites in southern China in two years, to investigate the effects of two Mn-containing soil amendments (MnO2, Mn-loaded biochar (MB)), Si fertilizer (Si), limestone, and K2SO4, as well as interactions among MnO2, Si, and limestone on decreasing Cd accumulation in rice grain. We found that single applications of MnO2 or MB to acidic soils low in Mn decreased grain Cd concentrations by 44-53 % or 78-82 %, respectively, over two years without decrease in performance. These effects were comparable to or greater than those induced by limestone liming alone (45-62 %). Strong interactions between MnO2 and limestone resulting from their influence on soil extractable Cd and Mn led to non-additive effects on lowering grain Cd. MB addition minimized grain Cd concentrations, primarily by increasing extractable and dissolved Mn concentrations, but also by decreasing Cd extractability in soil. In comparison, Si and K2SO4 amendments affected grain Cd levels only weakly. We conclude that the amendments that decrease labile Cd and increase labile Mn in soils are most effective at reducing Cd accumulation in rice grain, thus contributing to food safety.

Sulfur amendments to soil decrease inorganic arsenic accumulation in rice grain under flooded and nonflooded conditions: Insights from temporal dynamics of porewater chemistry and solid-phase arsenic solubility.

Rice cultivation under flooded conditions enhances arsenic (As) solubility and favors As accumulation in rice grain that poses an indisputable threat to human health worldwide. The reduction of sulfur may induce processes that decrease As solubility, but its impact on rice grain As species remains unresolved. Herein, we investigated the influence of sulfur (S)-containing materials, including chicken manure and elemental sulfur powder on As accumulation and speciation in rice grain as well as the dynamics of the porewater chemistry and solid-phase As solubility throughout the entire growth stage under continuous flooding and intermittent flooding conditions in pot experiments. The S amendments (200 mg S kg-1) to the soil significantly decreased inorganic As in rice grain under continuous flooding (~65% decrease) as well as under intermittent flooding (~70% decrease). The chicken manure amendment promoted sulfur reduction and enhanced dissolvable Mn, Fe, and As at an earlier growth stage. The sequential extraction results corroborated a decrease in the soluble and exchangeable As (F1) and an increase in residual As (F5) fractions in the S-amended treatments. Solubility data suggested that As adsorption onto Fe oxides was the primary mechanism controlling As solubility rather than the formation of AsFe sulfides. Porewater As, considered to represent the most bioavailable As fraction, failed to explain the grain As accumulation. The time-averaged concentration of oxalate-extractable As explained grain arsenite best, suggesting that poorly crystalline Fe oxides may be the primary dissolvable reactive phases that control As bioavailability in the soil-rice system. Our results suggest that the application of S-containing soil amendments can effectively decrease inorganic As accumulation in rice grains grown under the flooded conditions, which are most widely applied in paddy rice production.

Reduction and reoxidation of humic acid: influence on spectroscopic properties and proton binding.

Previous studies on proton and metal binding to humic substances have not considered a potential influence of reduction and oxidation of functional groups. Therefore, we investigated how proton binding of a purified soil humic acid was affected by reduction. Reduction of the humic acid was carried out using an electrochemical cell that allowed us to measure the amounts of electrons and protons involved in reduction reactions. We further applied spectroscopic methods (UV-vis, fluorescence, FT-IR, C-1s NEXAFS) to detect possible chemical changes in the humic acid induced by reduction and reoxidation. The effect of reduction on proton binding was determined with acid-base titrations in the pH range 4-10 under controlled redox conditions. During reduction, 0.54 mol kg(-1) protons and 0.55 mol kg(-1) electrons were transferred to humic acid. NICA-Donnan modeling revealed an equivalent increase in proton-reactive sites (0.52 mol kg(-1)) in the alkaline pH-range. Our results indicate that reduction of humic acid increased the amount of proton-reactive sites by 15% compared to the untreated state. Spectroscopic differences between the untreated and reduced humic acid were minor, apart from a lower UV-vis absorption of the reduced humic acid between 400 and 700 nm.

Surface precipitation of Mn2+ on clay minerals enhances Cd2+ sorption under anoxic conditions.

The influence of Mn2+ on the sorption of metal(loid)s onto clay minerals is still unclear despite its relevance in suboxic and anoxic environments which often exhibit elevated dissolved Mn2+ concentrations. In this study, the effects of Mn2+ on Cd2+ sorption to two types of clay minerals, a well-crystalline natural kaolinite (KGa-1b) and a synthetic montmorillonite (Syn-1), were investigated. Batch experiments on Mn2+ and Cd2+ sorption to Ca-saturated KGa-1b and Syn-1 were conducted under anoxic conditions. At low Mn2+ and Cd2+ concentrations (1 and 5 µM), both metals exhibited similar affinity for sorption to the clays, suggesting that elevated Mn2+ concentrations might effectively decrease Cd2+ sorption as predicted using a three-plane surface complexation model. However, competitive Mn-Cd experiments at higher concentrations (≥50 µM) revealed that for both clay minerals, the presence of Mn2+ increased Cd2+ sorption to the solid phases. Although solutions were undersaturated with respect to known Mn(ii) solid phases, analysis using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) evidenced the formation of Mn(ii)-containing solid phases which can specifically adsorb or incorporate Cd2+. This process, which was mediated by the presence of clay minerals, overcompensated the decrease in Cd2+ adsorption to clay surfaces due to competition with Mn2+. We conclude that, contrary to predictions based on a competitive surface complexation model, elevated Mn2+ concentrations can contribute to decrease dissolved Cd2+ concentrations in anoxic clay-containing environments, such as contaminated sediments or flooded paddy soils.

Interactions of ferrous iron with clay mineral surfaces during sorption and subsequent oxidation.

In submerged soils and sediments, clay minerals are often exposed to anoxic waters containing ferrous iron (Fe2+). Here, we investigated the sorption of Fe2+ onto a synthetic montmorillonite (Syn-1) low in structural Fe (<0.05 mmol Fe per kg) under anoxic conditions and the effects of subsequent oxidation. Samples were prepared at two Fe-loadings (0.05 and 0.5 mol Fe added per kg clay) and equilibrated for 1 and 30 days under anoxic conditions (O2 < 0.1 ppm), followed by exposure to ambient air. Iron solid-phase speciation and mineral identity was analysed by 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy and synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Mössbauer analyses showed that Fe(ii) was partially oxidized (14-100% of total added Fe2+) upon sorption to Syn-1 under anoxic conditions. XAS results revealed that the added Fe2+ mainly formed precipitates (layered Fe minerals, Fe(iii)-bearing clay minerals, ferrihydrite, and lepidocrocite) in different quantities depending on the Fe-loading. Exposing the suspensions to ambient air resulted in rapid and complete oxidation of sorbed Fe(ii) and the formation of Fe(iii)-phases (Fe(iii)-bearing clay minerals, ferrihydrite, and lepidocrocite), demonstrating that the clay minerals were unable to protect ferrous Fe from oxidation, even when equilibrated 30 days under anoxic conditions prior to oxidation. Our findings clarify the role of clay minerals in the formation and stability of Fe-bearing solid phases during redox cycles in periodically anoxic environments.

Reductive solubilization of arsenic in a mining-impacted river floodplain: Influence of soil properties and temperature.

Mining activities have contaminated many riverine floodplains with arsenic (As). When floodplain soils become anoxic under water-saturated conditions, As can be released from the solid phase. Several microbially-driven As solubilization processes and numerous influential factors were recognized in the past. However, the interplay and relative importance of soil properties and the influence of environmental factors such as temperature remain poorly understood, especially considering the (co)variation of soil properties in a floodplain. We conducted anoxic microcosm experiments at 10, 17.5, and 25 °C using 65 representative soils from the mining-impacted Ogosta River floodplain in Bulgaria. To investigate the processes of As solubilization and its quantitative variation we followed the As and Fe redox dynamics in the solid and the dissolved phase and monitored a range of other solution parameters including pH, Eh, dissolved organic C, and dissolved Mn. We related soil properties to dissolved As observed after 20 days of microcosm incubation to identify key soil properties for As solubilization. Our results evidenced reductive dissolution of As-bearing Fe(III)-oxyhydroxides as the main cause for high solubilization. The availability of nutrients, most likely organic C as the source of energy for microorganisms, was found to limit this process. Following the vertical nutrient gradient common in vegetated soil, we observed several hundred µM dissolved As after 1-2 weeks for some topsoils (0-20 cm), while for subsoils (20-40 cm) with comparable total As levels only minor solubilization was observed. While high Mn contents were found to inhibit As solubilization, the opposite applied for higher temperature (Q10 2.3-6.1 for range 10-25 °C). Our results suggest that flooding of nutrient-rich surface layers might be more problematic than water-saturation of nutrient-poor subsoil layers, especially in summer floodings when soil temperature is higher than in winter or spring.

Biochar as possible long-term soil amendment for phytostabilisation of TE-contaminated soils.

Soils contaminated by trace elements (TEs) pose a high risk to their surrounding areas as TEs can spread by wind and water erosion or leaching. A possible option to reduce TE transfer from these sites is phytostabilisation. It is a long-term and cost-effective rehabilitation strategy which aims at immobilising TEs within the soil by vegetation cover and amendment application. One possible amendment is biochar. It is charred organic matter which has been shown to immobilise metals due to its high surface area and alkaline pH. Doubts have been expressed about the longevity of this immobilising effect as it could dissipate once the carbonates in the biochar have dissolved. Therefore, in a pot experiment, we determined plant metal uptake by ryegrass (Lolium perenne) from three TE-contaminated soils treated with two biochars, which differed only in their pH (acidic, 2.80; alkaline, 9.33) and carbonate (0.17 and 7.3 %) content. Root biomass was increased by the application of the alkaline biochar due to the decrease in TE toxicity. Zinc and Cu bioavailability and plant uptake were equally reduced by both biochars, showing that surface area plays an important role in metal immobilisation. Biochar could serve as a long-term amendment for TE immobilisation even after its alkalinity effect has dissipated.