Physician's perceptions regarding the pharmaceutical industry: a Brazilian national study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the newly graduated physicians' attitudes and perceptions regarding the medical relationship with the pharmaceutical industry and identify the sociodemographic patterns related to such thinking. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was administered to 4,601 participants selected from a pool of 16,323 physicians who were registered with one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers were analyzed using two stratification variables: type of medical school (public vs. private) and the sex of the respondents. RESULTS: Out of the participants, 61.8% believed that industry funding could support medical conferences and education, and 48.4% felt that small gifts and conference travel funding were acceptable. Conversely, 64.7% disagreed with industry-sponsored social events. Views on whether pharmaceutical representatives' visits influenced prescriptions were divided. Statistically significant differences were observed between genders and medical school types, with men and private school graduates being more accepting of certain industry interactions. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the nuanced attitudes of new doctors toward industry relationships, indicating the need for clearer ethical guidelines and education in medical schools to align practice with evolving societal values.

Perception of newly graduated physicians toward ethical education in medical schools: a Brazilian cross-sectional nationwide study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate fresh medical graduates' perceptions regarding the general aspects of ethics teaching in Brazilian medical schools. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was applied to 4,601 participants among the 16,323 physicians who registered in one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers to four questions regarding general aspects of ethics education in medical school were analyzed. Sampling procedures involved two stratification variables: legal nature (public vs. private) of medical schools and monthly household income higher than 10 minimum wages. RESULTS: A large percentage of the participants had witnessed unethical behaviors during contact with patients (62.0%), toward coworkers (51.5%), and in relationships with patients' families (34.4%) over the course of their medical training. Even though most of the responders (72.0%) totally agreed that patient-physician relationship and humanities education were part of their medical school curriculum, important topics such as conflicts of interest and end-of-life education were not satisfactorily addressed in the participants' medical training. Statistically significant differences were found between the answers of public and private school graduates. CONCLUSION: Despite great efforts to improve medical ethics education, our findings suggest the persistence of deficits and inadequacies in the ethics training currently given in medical schools in Brazil. Further modifications in ethics training must be made to address the deficiencies shown in this study. This process should be accompanied by continuous evaluation.

Retinal microvascular density modifications during the water drinking test.

PURPOSE: The water drinking test (WDT) is a well-known stress test that increases intraocular pressure (IOP) momentarily and can indicate risk of glaucoma progression. This study focuses on correlating changes in the retinal microvascular plexus with the WDT in young healthy subjects. METHODS: A total of 20 eyes of 20 healthy young subjects (mean age 24.37 ± 2.17 years) were included in this study. In our protocol, WDT consisted of drinking 1 L of water within 5 min. Outcome measures in this prospective observational study were mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), IOP, and retinal vessel density of both superficial and deep macular retina using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), which were assessed before water ingestion and four times after at 15-min intervals. OCTA images were later quantified by fractal analysis (box counting [Dbox]). One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the effects of WDT on each of the parameters. RESULTS: The WDT resulted in significant peak changes of the following parameters compared to baseline: IOP: 15.63 ± 3.37 versus 18.38 ± 4.53 mmHg at 30 min, p < 0.001; HR: 75.74 ± 12.23 versus 64.95 ± 11.37 bpm at 15 min, p < 0.001; deep retinal vessel density 1.758 ± 0.14 versus 1.749 ± 0.16 at 15 min, p = 0.040. CONCLUSIONS: Besides IOP elevation and systemic effects in HR, WDT is associated with temporary modifications of the deep vascular plexus in young healthy subjects.

Age-related focal thinning of the ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer in a healthy population.

Background: Given the aging of the population worldwide, to learn the underlying age-related biological phenomena is important to improve the understanding of the ageing process. Neurodegeneration is an age-associated progressive deterioration of the neuron. Retinal neurodegeneration during aging, such as the reduction in thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) and ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL) measured by optical coherence tomography (OCT), has been reported, but no studies have provided their specific alteration patterns with age. Therefore, this study is to provide visualization of the evolution of various tomographic intraretinal layer thicknesses during aging and to document age-related changes in focal thickness. Methods: A total 194 healthy subjects were included in this cross-sectional study. The subjects were divided into four age groups: G1, <35 years; G2, 35-49 years; G3, 50-64 years; and G4 ≥65 years. One eye of each subject was imaged using a custom-built ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography (UHR-OCT). Volumetric data centered on the fovea were segmented to obtain the thickness maps of six intraretinal layers, including the macular retinal nerve fiber layer (mRNFL) and GCIPL. Results: There were alterations visualized in thickness maps in these intraretinal layers. The GCIPL showed a thickness reduction localized in the inner annulus in elder subjects (G4). Within the inner annulus, the most profound alteration in G4, an oval zone (length 0.76 mm and width 0.52 mm), appeared to be in the inferior sector about 0.61 mm below the fovea, named "A zone". The average thickness reduction of the A zone was 14.4 µm in the elderly group (G4). Age was significantly related to the GCIPL thickness of the inner annulus (ρ =-0.48; P<0.001) and of the A zone (ρ =-0.39, P<0.001). Conclusions: This is the first study to apply UHR-OCT for visualizing the age-related alteration of intraretinal layers in a general population. The most profound change of the optic nerve fiber is an oval-like focal thinning in GCIPL, which occurred in the inferior sector within the inner annulus and was strongly related to increased age.

Visual Function and Disability Are Associated with Increased Retinal Volumetric Vessel Density in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to determine the volumetric vessel density (VVD) in the intraretinal layers and its relationship with visual function and disability in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: A total of 80 patients with relapsing-remitting MS and 99 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HC) were recruited. The retinal microvascular network in the macular area was imaged using optical coherence tomography angiography in 123 eyes without a history of optic neuritis (ON) (MSNON) and 36 eyes with a history of ON (MSON). The VVD was calculated as the vessel densities in the retinal vascular network (RVN), superficial vascular plexus (SVP), or deep vascular plexus (DVP) of an annulus (0.6-2.5 mm in diameter), divided by the corresponding tissue volume of the intraretinal layers respectively. RESULTS: The VVD of RVN and DVP in MSNON were significantly higher than in HC (P < .05). The VVD of RVN, SVP, and DVP in MSON were significantly higher than in MSNON and HC (P < .05). The VVD in both RVN and SVP were positively related to EDSS and disease duration, but negatively related to low-contrast letter acuity (P < .05). The VVD measurements were also negatively and strongly related to the corresponding tissue volumes (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to reveal increased retinal VVD in patients with relapsing-remitting MS. The measurements of VVD in the RVN and SVP were related to disability and visual function, which may be developed as image markers for tracking disease progression.

Microcirculation in the conjunctiva and retina in healthy subjects.

BACKGROUND: The aim was to determine the relationship between bulbar conjunctival microcirculation and retinal microcirculation in a healthy population. METHOD: A functional slit-lamp biomicroscope (FSLB) was used to measure blood flow velocity (BFV) and blood flow rate (BFR) in the conjunctiva while a retinal function imager (RFI) was used to measure macular BFV and BFR in the retina. One eye of each subject of 58 self-reported healthy subjects was imaged in the same session on the same day. RESULTS: The mean BFV in the venules of the conjunctiva was 0.49 ± 0.13 mm/s, which was significantly slower than that in the retinal arterioles (3.71 ± 0.78 mm/s, P < 0.001) and retinal venules (2.98 ± 0.58 mm/s, P < 0.001). The BFR in the conjunctiva (0.09 nl/s) was also significantly lower than that in the retina (arterioles = 0.81 nl/s, venules = 0.68 nl/s, all P < 0.001). The BFVs and BFRs were not related between the conjunctiva and retina (r ranged from - 0.17 to - 0.05, all P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The microcirculation in the retina appeared to be different from that in the conjunctiva.

Quantitative analysis of conjunctival microvasculature imaged using optical coherence tomography angiography.

BACKGROUND: The goal was to quantitatively analyze the bulbar conjunctival microvascular density using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and compare it to the vessel density using functional slit-lamp biomicroscopy (FSLB). METHODS: Temporal bulbar conjunctiva of 20 eyes (10 healthy subjects) was imaged using both OCTA and FSLB. Image processing was performed including equalization, de-noising, thresholding, and skeletonization. The vessel density was measured by fractal analysis (box counting, Dbox) and pixel counting (%). RESULTS: Vessel density (Dbox) of the bulbar conjunctiva obtained using OCTA was 1.28 ± 0.01 Dbox, which was significantly lower than the result (1.32 ± 0.01 Dbox, P < 0.001) obtained using FSLB. Furthermore, the vessel density (%) obtained using OCTA was 3.31 ± 0.12%, which was also significantly lower than the result (3.69 ± 0.16%, P < 0.001) obtained using FSLB. No significant correlations (r ranged from 0.21 to 0.32, P > 0.05) between both instruments were found in both vessel density methods (Dbox and percentage). However, in each of the devices, vessel density in Dbox was significantly correlated with the vessel density in percentage (r = 1.0 for FSLB and r = 0.98 for OCTA, both P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that the vessel density of the bulbar conjunctiva obtained using OCTA can be quantified, and the results were not compatible with that obtained using slit-lamp biomicroscopy photography.

Focal Thickness Reduction of the Ganglion Cell-Inner Plexiform Layer Best Discriminates Prior Optic Neuritis in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis.

Purpose: The goal was to visualize topographic thickness maps of the intraretinal layers and evaluate their discrimination abilities and relationships with clinical manifestations in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and a history of optic neuritis (ON). Methods: Thirty patients with relapsing-remitting MS (34 eyes with a history of ON [MSON] and 26 non-ON fellow eyes [MSFE]) were recruited together with 63 age- and sex-matched controls (HC). Ultrahigh resolution optical coherence tomography was used to image the macula and the volumetric data set was segmented to yield six intraretinal layers. Topographic thickness maps were aligned and averaged for the visualization. The thickness maps were partitioned using the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) and related to Sloan low-contrast letter acuity (LCLA), Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), and disease duration. Results: Focal thickness reduction occurred in the macular retinal nerve fiber layer (mRNFL) and ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL), with the most profound reduction occurring in MSON eyes (P < 0.05). A horseshoe-like thickness reduction pattern (U Zone) in the GCIPL appeared in MSON. The thickness of the U Zone had better discrimination power than the ETDRS partitions (area under the curve = 0.97) and differentiated 96% of MSON from HC. The thickness of the U Zone was positively correlated to 2.5% LCLA (r = 0.38, P < 0.05) and 1.25% LCLA (r = 0.57, P < 0.05). Conclusions: The horseshoe-like thickness reduction of the GCIPL appeared to be an ON-specific focal thickness alteration with the highest discrimination power of prior ON.

Retinal Tissue Perfusion in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis.

Purpose: The goal of this work was to determine whether the retinal tissue perfusion (RTP) is impaired in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Methods: Seventy-four patients [66 relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) and 8 clinically isolated syndrome (CIS)] and 74 age- and gender-matched healthy controls were recruited. RTP was calculated as the retinal blood flow (measured using retinal function imager) supplying the macular area divided by the corresponding tissue volume of the inner retina from the inner limiting membrane to the outer plexiform layer, as measured by ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography. Results: The RTP in the MS group was 2.37 ± 0.59 nl/s/mm3 (mean ± standard deviation), which was significantly lower than the control group (4.06 ± 0.89 nl/s/mm3, P < .001), reflecting a decrease of 42%. The blood flow volume was 2.50 ± 0.50 nl/s in MS, which was 45% lower than in the control group (4.56 ± 0.91 nl/s, P < .001). In addition, the tissue volume of the inner retina was significantly lower than in the control group (P < .05). The RTP in patients with MS was significantly correlated with the retinal blood flow volume (r = 0.84, P < .001) and retinal tissue volume (r = -0.56, P < .001). However, the retinal blood flow in patients with MS was not related to the tissue volume (r = -0.06, P = .59). Conclusions: Impaired retinal tissue perfusion occurred in patients with MS, which could be developed as a possible biomarker in monitoring disease progression in MS.

Visual Function and Disability Are Associated With Focal Thickness Reduction of the Ganglion Cell-Inner Plexiform Layer in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to visualize the topographic thickness patterns of the intraretinal layers and their associations with clinical manifestations in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Methods: Ninety-four eyes of 47 relapsing-remitting MS patients without history of optic neuritis were imaged using optical coherence tomography and compared with 134 eyes of 67 healthy subjects. Volumetric data centered on the fovea were segmented to obtain the thickness maps of six intraretinal layers. The thickness measurements partitioned using the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) partition were correlated to the Expanded Disability State Scale (EDSS) and Sloan low contrast visual acuity (LCVA). The receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) curves were calculated to obtain the area under the ROC curves (AUCs). Results: The ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL) showed horseshoe-like thickness reduction profoundly at the nasal sector. The most profound thickness reduction zone (circular area, diameter = 1 mm) was located at 2 mm in the nasal sector and 0.4 mm inferior from the fovea, named the "M zone." The thickness reduction of the M zone was -7.3 µm in MS eyes, which was the most profound alteration, compared to any ETDRS sectors. The AUC of the M zone was 0.75. The relationship between the thickness of the M zone and EDSS (r = -0.59, P < 0.001) or 2.5% LCVA (r = 0.51, P < 0.001) were ranked as the strongest relation compared to any ETDRS sectors. Conclusions: This is the first study, to our knowledge, to visualize focal thickness alteration of GCIPL and reveal its relationship to visual function and disability in patients with MS without history of optic neuritis.

Improving diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy with a medical food containing L-methylfolate: a preliminary report.

BACKGROUND: Homocysteine and vitamin D may play a role in the development of diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension. Supplementing food with L-methylfolate and vitamin D theoretically may improve diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy, however, the outcome of these nutritional approaches has not been fully examined. A retrospective case review was done of cases of retinopathy reversal in patients on Ocufolin™ and a similar nonprescription multivitamin, Eyefolate™. In this study, they were administered L-methylfolate (2.7 mg and 3.0 mg, respectively) and vitamin D3 (4500 IU each). These dosages are significantly above the RDA but well below levels associated with toxicity. CASE PRESENTATION: Seven patients had nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) and some of them had hypertension. One patient had only hypertensive retinopathy. All patients were instructed to take Ocufolin™ medical food as a food supplement. Baseline genetic testing for MTHFR polymorphisms was conducted. Fundus photography was used to document the fundus condition of the enrolled eyes in 8 NPDR patients at the initial and follow-up visits. Microaneurysms (MA) and exudates were observed to be improved in some trial patients. All subjects had one or more MTHFR polymorphisms. All had diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, or both. MAs were resolved, and exudates were decreased in 8/8 cases after taking the medical food. Retinal edema was found in 2/8 cases and improved or resolved in both cases after taking the medical food or the supplement. The best corrected visual activity was stable or improved in 8/8 cases. CONCLUSION: We report a series of diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy cases with MTHFR polymorphisms and the improvement of retinal microvasculature (mainly MAs) in serial fundus photography after taking a medical food or supplement containing L-methylfolate and vitamin D. It appears that the use of nutritional supplements and medical foods containing L-methylfolate and vitamin D may be effective in facilitating the improvement of diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy.

Why ophthalmology? Analysis of the motivating factors influencing the choice of ophthalmology as a career among different generations in Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: The increasing demand for medical specialties with flexible working hours has been associated with the important role of quality of life as a determining factor when choosing a career in medicine, which might change the motivations for pursuing a career in ophthalmology. We aim to identify the main determinants of ophthalmology as a career choice as well as the reasons that motivated previous generations to follow this path. METHODS: Responses to self-administered online questionnaires were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 225 responses were analyzed, including those of baby boomers (21), generation X (48), generation Y (131) and generation Z (25). Although the main reasons for choosing ophthalmology as a career are the same for all the generations in this study (flexible working hours, self-satisfaction from helping people improve their vision and the possibility of performing surgical procedures), some reasons for this career choice are more important to the younger generations (short-term results and short procedures), and some are more important to the older generations (the influence of an ophthalmologist in the family). CONCLUSION: The main reasons for choosing ophthalmology as a career are essentially the same over time. The differences in secondary motivations could be explained by generational differences.

Physician's perceptions regarding the pharmaceutical industry: a Brazilian national study

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the newly graduated physicians' attitudes and perceptions regarding the medical relationship with the pharmaceutical industry and identify the sociodemographic patterns related to such thinking. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was administered to 4,601 participants selected from a pool of 16,323 physicians who were registered with one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers were analyzed using two stratification variables: type of medical school (public vs. private) and the sex of the respondents. RESULTS: Out of the participants, 61.8% believed that industry funding could support medical conferences and education, and 48.4% felt that small gifts and conference travel funding were acceptable. Conversely, 64.7% disagreed with industry-sponsored social events. Views on whether pharmaceutical representatives' visits influenced prescriptions were divided. Statistically significant differences were observed between genders and medical school types, with men and private school graduates being more accepting of certain industry interactions. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the nuanced attitudes of new doctors toward industry relationships, indicating the need for clearer ethical guidelines and education in medical schools to align practice with evolving societal values.

Retinal tissue hypoperfusion in patients with clinical Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: It remains unknow whether retinal tissue perfusion occurs in patients with Alzheimer's disease. The goal was to determine retinal tissue perfusion in patients with clinical Alzheimer's disease (CAD). METHODS: Twenty-four CAD patients and 19 cognitively normal (CN) age-matched controls were recruited. A retinal function imager (RFI, Optical Imaging Ltd., Rehovot, Israel) was used to measure the retinal blood flow supplying the macular area of a diameter of 2.5 mm centered on the fovea. Blood flow volumes of arterioles (entering the macular region) and venules (exiting the macular region) of the supplied area were calculated. Macular blood flow was calculated as the average of arteriolar and venular flow volumes. Custom ultra-high-resolution optical coherence tomography (UHR-OCT) was used to calculate macular tissue volume. Automated segmentation software (Orion, Voxeleron LLC, Pleasanton, CA) was used to segment six intra-retinal layers in the 2.5 mm (diameter) area centered on the fovea. The inner retina (containing vessel network), including retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL), inner nuclear layer (INL) and outer plexiform layer (OPL), was segmented and tissue volume was calculated. Perfusion was calculated as the flow divided by the tissue volume. RESULTS: The tissue perfusion in CAD patients was 2.58 ± 0.79 nl/s/mm3 (mean ± standard deviation) and was significantly lower than in CN subjects (3.62 ± 0.44 nl/s/mm3, P <  0.01), reflecting a decrease of 29%. The flow volume was 2.82 ± 0.92 nl/s in CAD patients, which was 31% lower than in CN subjects (4.09 ± 0.46 nl/s, P <  0.01). GCIPL tissue volume was 0.47 ± 0.04 mm3 in CAD patients and 6% lower than CN subjects (0.50 ± 0.05 mm3, P < 0.05). No other significant alterations were found in the intra-retinal layers between CAD and CN participants. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to show decreased retinal tissue perfusion that may be indicative of diminished tissue metabolic activity in patients with clinical Alzheimer's disease.

Perception of newly graduated physicians toward ethical education in medical schools: a Brazilian cross-sectional nationwide study

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate fresh medical graduates' perceptions regarding the general aspects of ethics teaching in Brazilian medical schools. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was applied to 4,601 participants among the 16,323 physicians who registered in one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers to four questions regarding general aspects of ethics education in medical school were analyzed. Sampling procedures involved two stratification variables: legal nature (public vs. private) of medical schools and monthly household income higher than 10 minimum wages. RESULTS: A large percentage of the participants had witnessed unethical behaviors during contact with patients (62.0%), toward coworkers (51.5%), and in relationships with patients' families (34.4%) over the course of their medical training. Even though most of the responders (72.0%) totally agreed that patient-physician relationship and humanities education were part of their medical school curriculum, important topics such as conflicts of interest and end-of-life education were not satisfactorily addressed in the participants' medical training. Statistically significant differences were found between the answers of public and private school graduates. CONCLUSION: Despite great efforts to improve medical ethics education, our findings suggest the persistence of deficits and inadequacies in the ethics training currently given in medical schools in Brazil. Further modifications in ethics training must be made to address the deficiencies shown in this study. This process should be accompanied by continuous evaluation.

Visualization of Focal Thinning of the Ganglion Cell-Inner Plexiform Layer in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease.

BACKGROUND: A detailed analysis of the tomographic thickness of intraretinal layers may provide more information on neurodegeneration in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). OBJECTIVE: The goal was to analyze tomographic thickness patterns of intraretinal layers in patients with AD andMCI. METHOD: Forty-nine patients (25 AD and 24 MCI) and 21 cognitively normal (CN) controls were imaged using ultra-high-resolution optical coherence tomography to obtain volumetric data centered on the fovea. The segmented intraretinal layers were retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), ganglion cell- inner plexiform layer (GCIPL), inner nuclear layer (INL), outer nuclear layer (ONL), outer plexiform layer (OPL), and retinal photoreceptor (PR), in addition to the total retinal thickness(TRT). RESULTS: The thickness differences were negative (thinning) mainly in TRT, RNFL, and GCIPL in both AD and MCI groups in comparison to CN, while the thickness differences were positive (thickening) mainly in ONL and PR in AD. GCIPL of AD and MCI was thinner in superior, nasal superior, and temporal superior quadrants, compared to CN (p < 0.05). GCIPL of the inner superior, inner nasal superior, inner temporal superior, and outer nasal superior sectors was significantly thinner in AD than CN (p < 0.05). GCIPL of the outer superior, inner temporal superior, outer nasal, and temporal superior sectors was significantly thinner in MCI than CN (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Focal thinning of the GCIPL was visualized and quantified by detailed partitions in AD and MCI, which provides specific information about neurodegeneration in MCI and AD.

Why ophthalmology? Analysis of the motivating factors influencing the choice of ophthalmology as a career among different generations in Brazil

OBJECTIVES: The increasing demand for medical specialties with flexible working hours has been associated with the important role of quality of life as a determining factor when choosing a career in medicine, which might change the motivations for pursuing a career in ophthalmology. We aim to identify the main determinants of ophthalmology as a career choice as well as the reasons that motivated previous generations to follow this path. METHODS: Responses to self-administered online questionnaires were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 225 responses were analyzed, including those of baby boomers (21), generation X (48), generation Y (131) and generation Z (25). Although the main reasons for choosing ophthalmology as a career are the same for all the generations in this study (flexible working hours, self-satisfaction from helping people improve their vision and the possibility of performing surgical procedures), some reasons for this career choice are more important to the younger generations (short-term results and short procedures), and some are more important to the older generations (the influence of an ophthalmologist in the family). CONCLUSION: The main reasons for choosing ophthalmology as a career are essentially the same over time. The differences in secondary motivations could be explained by generational differences.