GluN2C selective inhibition is a target to develop new antiepileptic compounds.

OBJECTIVE: Many early-onset epilepsies present as developmental and epileptic encephalopathy associated with refractory seizures, altered psychomotor development, and disorganized interictal cortical activity. Abnormal upregulation of specific N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R) subunits is being disentangled as one of the mechanisms of severe early-onset epilepsies. In tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), upregulation of the GluN2C subunit of the NMDA-R with slow deactivation kinetic results in increased neuronal excitation and synchronization. METHODS: Starting from an available GluN2C/D antagonist, NMDA-R-modulating compounds were developed and screened using a patch clamp on neuronal culture to select those with the strongest inhibitory effect on glutamatergic NMDA currents. For these selected compounds, blood pharmacokinetics and passage through the blood-brain barrier were studied. We tested the effect of the most promising compounds on epileptic activity in Tsc1+/- mice brain slices with multielectrode array, and then in vivo at postnatal ages P14-P17, comparable with the usual age at epilepsy onset in human TSC. RESULTS: Using a double-electrode voltage clamp on isolated NMDA currents, we identified the most prominent antagonists of the GluN2C subunit with no effect on GluN2A as a means of preventing side effects. The best compound passing through the blood-brain barrier was selected. Applied in vivo in six Tsc1+/- mice at P14-P17, this compound reduced or completely stopped spontaneous seizures in four of them, and decreased the background activity disorganization. Furthermore, ictal-like discharges stopped on a human brain sample from an infant with epilepsy due to TSC. INTERPRETATION: Subunit-selective inhibition is a valuable target for developing drugs for severe epilepsies resulting from an upregulation of NMDA-R subunit-mediated transmission.

Lessons learned from 40 novel PIGA patients and a review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: To define the phenotypic spectrum of phosphatidylinositol glycan class A protein (PIGA)-related congenital disorder of glycosylation (PIGA-CDG) and evaluate genotype-phenotype correlations. METHODS: Our cohort encompasses 40 affected males with a pathogenic PIGA variant. We performed a detailed phenotypic assessment, and in addition, we reviewed the available clinical data of 36 previously published cases and assessed the variant pathogenicity using bioinformatical approaches. RESULTS: Most individuals had hypotonia, moderate to profound global developmental delay, and intractable seizures. We found that PIGA-CDG spans from a pure neurological phenotype at the mild end to a Fryns syndrome-like phenotype. We found a high frequency of cardiac anomalies including structural anomalies and cardiomyopathy, and a high frequency of spontaneous death, especially in childhood. Comparative bioinformatical analysis of common variants, found in the healthy population, and pathogenic variants, identified in affected individuals, revealed a profound physiochemical dissimilarity of the substituted amino acids in variant constrained regions of the protein. SIGNIFICANCE: Our comprehensive analysis of the largest cohort of published and novel PIGA patients broadens the spectrum of PIGA-CDG. Our genotype-phenotype correlation facilitates the estimation on pathogenicity of variants with unknown clinical significance and prognosis for individuals with pathogenic variants in PIGA.

Neonatal SCN2A encephalopathy: A peculiar recognizable electroclinical sequence.

INTRODUCTION: Sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 2 (SCN2A) gene encodes the Nav1.2 subunit of voltage-gated sodium channel in pyramidal neurons. SCN2A gain-of-function mutations are identified more and more often with gene panels and whole exome sequencing. Phenotype ranges from benign neonatal or infantile seizures to severe epileptic encephalopathy. Although large series of patients targeting genetic background point out two main phenotypes with SCN2A encephalopathy, Ohtahara syndrome and malignant migrating partial seizures in infancy (EMPSI), we noticed that in fact, a peculiar clinical and electroencephalogram (EEG) sequence distinct from these syndromes should suggest the diagnosis early. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We report three new cases with de novo SCN2A mutations - 166237617C>A p.(Asp1487Glu), c.407T>G p.(Met136Arg), and c.4633A>G p.(Met1545Val) - diagnosed by direct sequencing or genes panel, their follow-up ranging from 4 to 5 years. RESULTS: For all three patients, seizures started at two days of life and consisted of apnea and cyanosis with partial clonic or tonic, alternating on both sides with, up to 100/day, evolving to generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) and epileptic spasms by three months. First EEG showed a discontinuous pattern, evolving to multifocal spikes, by 3 (two patients) and 6 months (one). Seizure frequency decreased progressively by the middle or end of the first year of life. Only less frequent GTCS persisted during the second year of life for two patients. Improvement was observed in two patients with sodium channel blocker (phenytoin) used at age of 1 month for one patient and at 2 years for another one. All patients remained with severe psychomotor delay. DISCUSSION: All three infants share a condition different from Ohtahara syndrome in which tonic spasms predominate and suppression-burst pattern is obvious, and from EMPSI, in which partial migrating discharges involve successively the various parts of the brain including occipital regions with oculoclonic seizures, but there is neither discontinuous pattern nor therapeutic response to sodium channel blockers. CONCLUSION: Neonatal SCN2A encephalopathy has a recognizable phenotype starting soon after birth with alternating partial motor seizures evolving to infantile spasms and a discontinuous EEG pattern. Seizures improve spontaneously in the first year of life. This electroclinical sequence should indicate the search of SCN2A mutation and suggest the administration of sodium channel blockers.

Clinical study of 19 patients with SCN8A-related epilepsy: Two modes of onset regarding EEG and seizures.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the mode of onset of SCN8A-related severe epilepsy in order to facilitate early recognition, and eventually early treatment with sodium channel blockers. METHODS: We reviewed the phenotype of patients carrying a mutation in the SCN8A gene, among a multicentric cohort of 638 patients prospectively followed by several pediatric neurologists. We focused on the way clinicians made the diagnosis of epileptic encephalopathy, the very first symptoms, electroencephalography (EEG) findings, and seizure types. We made genotypic/phenotypic correlation based on epilepsy-associated missense variant localization over the protein. RESULTS: We found 19 patients carrying a de novo mutation of SCN8A, representing 3% of our cohort, with 9 mutations being novel. Age at onset of epilepsy was 1 day to 16 months. We found two modes of onset: 12 patients had slowly emerging onset with rare and/or subtle seizures and normal interictal EEG (group 1). The first event was either acute generalized tonic-clonic seizure (GTCS; Group 1a, n = 6) or episodes of myoclonic jerks that were often mistaken for sleep-related movements or other movement disorders (Group 1b, n = 6). Seven patients had a sudden onset of frequent tonic seizures or epileptic spasms with abnormal interictal EEG leading to rapid diagnosis of epileptic encephalopathy. Sodium channel blockers were effective or nonaggravating in most cases. SIGNIFICANCE: SCN8A is the third most prevalent early onset epileptic encephalopathy gene and is associated with two modes of onset of epilepsy.

New insights in phenomenology and treatment of epilepsy in CDKL5 encephalopathy.

Eight patients, seven girls and one boy, had CDKL5 gene mutation, duplication, or deletion. Epileptic spasms started at a mean age of 3.5 months (range = 4 weeks-8 months). In five cases, tonic seizures preceded spasms at a median age of 6 weeks. In one patient who started at 8 months, spasms had a component of terror on awakening, reminding sleep terror. In two patients, electroencephalogram polygraphy of a so-called tonic seizure revealed that the tonic phase was followed by an overlooked clonic phase and then by a cluster of spasms during which each spasm was preceded by a brief clonic jerk revealed by electromyography. This sequence is rather particular and can be an early diagnostic clue. Progressive transition from this seizure type to epileptic spasms in clusters seems to result from increasing expression of the CDKL5 gene, as the child grows older. Five patients responded to the combination of vigabatrin and zonisamide.

Gene mutations in paediatric epilepsies cause NMDA-pathy, and phasic and tonic GABA-pathy.

The aim of this study was to disentangle mechanisms of epileptogenesis in monogenic epilepsies in children. We reviewed paediatric monogenic epilepsies excluding brain malformation or an inborn error of metabolism, but including the gene function whether there is loss-of-function or gain-of-function, age at gene expression when available, and associated epilepsy syndrome. Genes for which at least five patients with similar epilepsy phenotype had been reported were selected. Three mechanisms are shared by most monogenic epilepsies: (1) excess of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) transmission activation (NMDA-pathies); (2) abnormal gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transmission with reduced inhibition (phasic GABA-pathies); and (3) tonic activation of extrasynaptic GABAA receptors by extracellular GABA (tonic GABA-pathies). NMDA-pathies comprise early epileptic encephalopathy with suppression-burst, neonatal/infantile benign seizures, West and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes, and encephalopathy with continuous spike waves in slow sleep, thus brief seizures with major interictal spiking. Phasic GABA-pathies comprise mostly generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus and Dravet syndrome, thus long-lasting seizures with mild interictal spiking. Tonic GABA-pathies cause epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic seizures and Angelman syndrome, thus major high-amplitude slow-wave activity. This pathophysiological approach to monogenic epilepsies provides diagnostic clues and helps to guide treatment strategy. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: In paediatric monogenic epilepsies, electroclinical patterns point to three main mechanisms: NMDA-pathies, and phasic and tonic GABA-pathies. Antiepileptic treatment choice could be guided by each of these mechanisms.

LAS MUTACIONES GENÉTICAS EN LAS EPILEPSIAS PEDIÁTRICAS CAUSAN PATOLOGÍA POR LOS RECEPTORES NMDA Y GABA FÁSICA Y TÓNICA: El objetivo de este estudio fue desentrañar los mecanismos de la epileptogénesis en las epilepsias monogénicas en niños. Revisamos las epilepsias monogénicas pediátricas, excluyendo la malformación cerebral o un error innato del metabolismo, pero incluyendo la función del gen si hay pérdida de función o ganancia de función, la edad en la expresión del gen cuando esté disponible y el síndrome de epilepsia asociado. Se seleccionaron genes para los que se reportaron al menos cinco pacientes con fenotipo de epilepsia similar. La mayoría de las epilepsias monogénicas comparten tres mecanismos: el exceso de activación de la transmisión de N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA, por sus siglas en inglés); transmisión anormal del ácido gamma-aminobutírico (GABA) con inhibición reducida (patología del GABA fásica); y la activación tónica de receptores de GABAA extrasinápticos por GABA extracelular (tónica GABA-patologías). Las patologías por NMDA comprenden encefalopatía epiléptica temprana con estallido de supresión, convulsiones benignas neonatales / infantiles, síndromes de West y Lennox-Gastaut, y encefalopatía con ondas de pico continuas en el sueño lento, por lo tanto, breves convulsiones con picos interictales importantes. Las patologías fásicas por GABA comprenden en su mayoría epilepsia generalizada con convulsiones febriles más y síndrome de Dravet, por lo tanto, convulsiones de larga duración con picos interictales leves. Las patologías tónicas por GABA causan epilepsia con convulsiones mioclónica-atónicas y el síndrome de Angelman, por lo tanto, una actividad importante de ondas lentas de gran amplitud. Este enfoque fisiopatológico de las epilepsias monogénicas proporciona pistas de diagnóstico y ayuda a guiar la estrategia de tratamiento.

MUTAÇÕES GENÉTICAS EM EPILEPSIAS PEDIÁTRICAS CAUSAM NMDA-PATIA GABA-PATIA TÔNICA E FÁSICA: O objetivo deste estudo foi desvendar mecanismos de epileptogênese em epilepsias monogências em crianças. Revisamos epilepsias pediátricas monogênicas excluindo malformação cerebral e erros inatos do metabolismo, mas incluindo a função do gene se houvesse perda ou ganho função, idade da expressão do gene quando disponível, e síndrome de epilepsia associada. Genes para os quais pelo menos cinco pacientes com fenótipo epiléptico similar haviam sido reportados foram selecionados. Três mecanismos foram compartilhados pela maioria das epilepsias monogênicas: excessiva transmissão ativação de N-methyl-d-aspartato (NMDA) (NMDA-patias); transmissão anormal de ácido gama-amino-butírico (GABA) com reduzida inibição (GABA-patias fásicas); ativação tônica de receptores extrasinápticos de GABAA por GABA extra-celular (GABA-patias tônicas). NMDA-patias incluem encefalopatia epiléptica precoce com padrão de surto-supressão, convulsões neonatais/infantis benignas, síndromes de West e Lennox-Gastaut, e encefalopatia com picos de ondas contínuas no sono lento, portanto convulsões breves com importante pico interictal. GABA-patias fásicas incluem epilepsia mais generalizada com convulsões febris e síndrome de Dravet, portanto convulsões longas com picos interictais menores. GABA-patias tônicas causam epilepsia com convulsões miocônicas-atônicas e síndrome de Angelman, portanto, importante atividade de ondas lentas de alta amplitude. Esta abordagem patofisiológica das epilepsias monogênicas fornece dicas diagnósticas e ajuda a guiar estratégias de tratamento.

Epilepsy in young Tsc1(+/-) mice exhibits age-dependent expression that mimics that of human tuberous sclerosis complex.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epileptic phenotype of Tsc1(+/-) mice pups in comparison with age-related seizures in human tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). METHODS: Tsc1(+/-) and control mice underwent intracranial electroencephalography (EEG) recording at postnatal ages (P)8 to P33, with linear silicon probe implanted in the somatosensory cortex of one or both hemispheres for 8-24 h. Ictal events were classified visually by independent analyzers; distinct EEG patterns were related to age and analyzed to quantify field potential characteristics and signal dynamics between hemispheres. We collected retrospectively 20 infants with prenatally diagnosed TSC and EEG before seizure onset, and analyzed the electroclinical course of epilepsy, taking into account a first-line treatment by vigabatrin. RESULTS: Spontaneous seizures were disclosed in 55% of Tsc1(+/-) mice at P9-18. Three ictal patterns were identified: from P9 to P12 "spike clusters" consisted of recurring large spikes without clinical correlate; "spasm-like" discharges dominated from P13 to P16 consisting of high amplitude large field potential superimposed with or followed by fast activity repeated every 2-10 s for at least 20 s, accompanied by rhythmic limb contractions; from P14 to P18 a "tonic-clonic like" pattern comprised rhythmic spikes of increasing amplitude with tonic-clonic movements. Early onset "spike clusters" were mainly unilateral, whereas "spasm-like" and "tonic-clonic like" patterns were bilateral. Interhemispheric propagation was significantly faster for "tonic-clonic like" than for "spasm-like" events. In infants diagnosed prenatally with TSC, clusters of sharp waves or spikes preceded the first seizure, and vigabatrin prevented the development of seizures. Patients treated after seizure onset developed spasms or focal seizures that were pharmacoresistant in 66.7% of cases. SIGNIFICANCE: Tsc1(+/-) mice pups exhibit an age-dependent seizure pattern sequence mimicking early human TSC epilepsy features. Spike clusters before seizure onset in TSC should be considered as a first stage of epilepsy reinforcing the concept of preventive antiepileptic therapy.

Epileptic Phenotype of Two Siblings with Asparagine Synthesis Deficiency Mimics Neonatal Pyridoxine-Dependent Epilepsy.

We report the cases of a brother and a sister of nonconsanguineous parents who developed progressive microcephaly and had tremor, irritability, spasticity, startle reflexes, and permanent erratic myoclonus since birth. Focal clonic seizures, status epilepticus, and infantile spasms appeared later, during the first months of life, while erratic myoclonic jerks persisted. Electroencephalogram initially showed multifocal spikes that evolved into modified hypsarrhythmia and then discontinuous activity, evoking the progressive nature of the condition. Magnetic resonance imaging showed brain atrophy and poor myelination. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid asparagine levels were normal or moderately reduced on repeat testing. Both infants died at the age of 8 months in status epilepticus. Neuropathology of the brother revealed diffuse neuronal loss and astrocytic gliosis predominating in superficial layers of temporal and frontal lobes and in thalamus with almost absent myelin, as a consequence of the neuronal death. Whole exome sequencing of the siblings and parents revealed compound heterozygous c.1439C > T (p.Ser480Phe) and c.1648C > T (p.Arg550Cys) mutations in the ASNS gene, indicating asparagine synthetase (ASNS) deficiency. Electroclinical epileptic phenotype and neuropathological findings of ASNS deficiency are reminiscent of neonatal pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy, thus suggesting common pathophysiological mechanism possibly related to cytotoxic glutamate accumulation.

Seizures and epilepsy in hypoglycaemia caused by inborn errors of metabolism.

AIM: The aim of the study was to characterize seizures and epilepsy related to hypoglycaemia. METHOD: We analyzed the files of 170 consecutive patients referred for hypoglycaemia (onset 1h to 4y) caused by inborn errors of metabolism (glycogen storage disease type I, fatty acid ß-oxidation disorders, and hyperinsulinism). RESULTS: Ninety patients (42 males and 48 females; 38 neonates and 52 infants/children) had brief hypoglycaemic seizures (68%) or status epilepticus (32%). Status epilepticus occurred earlier (mean 1.4d) than brief neonatal seizures (4.3d, p=0.02). Recurrent status epilepticus followed initial status epilepticus and was often triggered by fever. Epilepsy developed in 21 patients. In 18 patients, epilepsy followed hypoglycaemic status epilepticus and began with shorter delay when associated with grey matter lesions (1.9mo, standard error of the mean [SEM] 1mo) than with white matter damage (3.3y [SEM 1y], p=0.003). Three patients with hyperinsulinism developed idiopathic epilepsy following brief neonatal seizures. INTERPRETATION: Brief neonatal hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemic seizures have characteristics of idiopathic neonatal seizures. Neonatal status epilepticus should be prevented by the systematic measurement of glucose blood level. Recurrent seizures never consist of status epilepticus when following brief initial seizures. Epilepsy is symptomatic of brain damage with shorter delay in the case of grey rather than white matter lesions, except in a few idiopathic cases in which epilepsy and hyperinsulinism may share a common genetic background.

Topography of brain damage in metabolic hypoglycaemia is determined by age at which hypoglycaemia occurred.

AIM: Having previously shown that comorbidity is a major determinant of neurological sequelae in hypoglycaemia, our aim was to describe the neuroimaging patterns of brain damage in different hypoglycaemic situations and to elucidate the factors that determine lesion topography. METHOD: We reviewed 50 patients (31 females, 19 males) with symptomatic hypoglycaemia (<2.8 mmol/L) occurring between 1 day and 5 years of age (median 4 d) who had undergone magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; at least axial T2-weighted, sagittal T1-weighted, and coronal fluid-attenuated inversion recovery [FLAIR]-weighted imaging). MRI was performed during the follow-up examination at least 1 month after the occurrence of symptomatic hypoglycaemia, i.e. between 1 month and 5 years of age (median 3 mo). Hypoglycaemia resulted from three inborn errors of metabolism: congenital hyperinsulinism (33 patients), fatty acid ß-oxidation disorders (13 patients), or glycogen storage disease type I (four patients). We selected the patients with clear MRI abnormalities and analysed their topography according to aetiology and age at occurrence of the lesion. RESULTS: The topography of the brain lesions depended on age: from the neonatal period to 6 months of age, lesions predominantly involved the posterior white matter; between 6 and 22 months the basal ganglia, and after 22 months the parietotemporal cortex (p=0.04). INTERPRETATION: The relationship between brain lesions and age could reflect the maturation sequence of the brain.

Comorbidity and metabolic context are crucial factors determining neurological sequelae of hypoglycaemia.

AIM: To determine risk factors for neurological sequelae following hypoglycemia. METHOD: We analysed the neurological outcome in 164 patients (mean age 10y 10mo, SD 5.9) following hypoglycemia due to three diseases with various metabolic contexts, different ages at onset, and combinations with comorbidity (fever/infection, hypoxia/ischemia): glycogen storage disease type I (GSDI) (21 patients, mean age at first hypoglycemic episode 3.8mo, SD 3.5); fatty acid ß-oxidation defects (FAOD) (29 patients, mean age at first hypoglycemic episode 14.8mo, SD 12.6); and hyperinsulinism (HIns) (114 patients, mean age at first hypoglycemic episode 2.3mo, SD 4.7). RESULTS: Risk factors of poor neurological outcome were aetiology (p<0.006), comorbidity (p<0.001), and prolonged convulsions (p<0.001). Ordinal logistic regression showed that comorbidity (p<0.001) and status epilepticus (p=0.002) were the main determinants of sequelae. Asymptomatic hypoglycemia did not lead to sequelae, whatever the aetiology. Age was not correlated to sequelae, whatever the aetiology. The highest prevalence of hypoglycemic sequelae was found in FAOD and HIns combined with comorbidity, the lowest in GSDI (p<0.001) in which hypoglycemia is often asymptomatic, associated with increased plasma lactate, and rarely combined with comorbidity. INTERPRETATION: Hypoglycemia is severely deleterious for the brain in the context of fever/infection and/or hypoxia/ischemia, and status epilepticus. The metabolic context providing alternative fuels may improve neurological outcome.

Epileptic spasms with terror during sleep in CDKL5 encephalopathy.

Study Objectives: To describe early diagnostic clues in Cyclin-Dependent Kinase-Like 5 (CDKL5) refractory encephalopathy, to improve treatment strategies. Methods: We retrospectively studied 35 patients (25 females, 10 males) with CDKL5 gene mutations or deletion, focusing on their early seizure semiology, the electroencephalogram (EEG) pattern, the effect of treatment, and developmental outcome. Results: The first seizures were recognizable and consisted of tonic, then clonic, and spasms phases, occurring in sleep at a median age of 6 weeks. Clusters of spasms were observed in quiet sleep or slow-wave sleep (SWS), with screaming, staring, and arms' extension that mimicked sleep terror in 28 of 35 patients (80%). Programmed awakening prevented these spasms in 9 of 16 patients and small doses of clonazepam given at night improved epilepsy in 14 of 23 patients. Conclusions: Peculiar seizures with spasms starting in SWS are an early diagnostic clue in infants with CDKL5 encephalopathy. Sleep video-EEG polygraphy is an easy tool to disclose these early seizures and epileptic spasms in infants during the first months of life while polysomnography is unlikely to give a contribution at that early age. While conventional antiepileptic treatment and corticosteroids are poorly, transiently, or not efficient, therapeutic strategy used for sleep terror could help, although the mechanism of spasms generation in SWS needs to be elucidated.

Paroxysmal EEG pattern in a child with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis.

A previously healthy 8-year-old male presented with cognitive regression, sleep disturbance, hallucinations, and severe attacks of agitation and oligoclonal bands in the cerebrospinal fluid. N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies in serum and cerebrospinal fluid were detected 2 months after onset of symptoms. Bursts of agitation were initially considered to be epileptic leading to the administration of a high dose of benzodiazepines. Video-electroencephalography (EEG) failed to disclose any correlation between the episodes of agitation and paroxysmal rhythmic slow activity on EEG persisting throughout and after attacks of agitation. Clinical improvement and EEG normalization followed an initial plasma exchange performed 3 months after onset of disease. This particular paroxysmal EEG pattern in NMDAR antibody encephalitis suggests that it may result from the combination of reduced NMDAR function and major γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic activation.

STXBP1 germline mutation and focal cortical dysplasia.

A child with a de novo STXBP1 heterozygous missense mutation, believed to be a pathogenic variant, presented with clustering focal seizures affecting both hemispheres. These had begun at the age of 10 months with a phenotype similar to that of PCDH19 encephalopathy. MRI suggested a similarity to focal cortical dysplasia, though further research is needed. There was no evidence of either suppression-bursts or infantile spasms. This new case adds to the few other cases of patients with STXBP1 mutation in whom imaging features of focal cortical dysplasia on MRI have been reported, implying a possible role of STXBP1 mutation in neuronal migration disorders. If such a mutation with focal seizures is suspected, the possibility of focal cortical dysplasia should be investigated. [Published with video sequences].

Basal Ganglia Dysmorphism in Patients With Aicardi Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Aiming to detect associations between neuroradiologic and EEG evaluations and long-term clinical outcome in order to detect possible prognostic factors, a detailed clinical and neuroimaging characterization of 67 cases of Aicardi syndrome (AIC), collected through a multicenter collaboration, was performed. METHODS: Only patients who satisfied Sutton diagnostic criteria were included. Clinical outcome was assessed using gross motor function, manual ability, and eating and drinking ability classification systems. Brain imaging studies and statistical analysis were reviewed. RESULTS: Patients presented early-onset epilepsy, which evolved into drug-resistant seizures. AIC has a variable clinical course, leading to permanent disability in most cases; nevertheless, some cases presented residual motor abilities. Chorioretinal lacunae were present in 86.56% of our patients. Statistical analysis revealed correlations between MRI, EEG at onset, and clinical outcome. On brain imaging, 100% of the patients displayed corpus callosum malformations, 98% cortical dysplasia and nodular heterotopias, and 96.36% intracranial cysts (with similar rates of 2b and 2d). As well as demonstrating that posterior fossa abnormalities (found in 63.63% of cases) should also be considered a common feature in AIC, our study highlighted the presence (in 76.36%) of basal ganglia dysmorphisms (never previously reported). CONCLUSION: The AIC neuroradiologic phenotype consists of a complex brain malformation whose presence should be considered central to the diagnosis. Basal ganglia dysmorphisms are frequently associated. Our work underlines the importance of MRI and EEG, both for correct diagnosis and as a factor for predicting long-term outcome. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class II evidence that for patients with AIC, specific MRI abnormalities and EEG at onset are associated with clinical outcomes.

From genotype to phenotype in Dravet disease.

Dravet syndrome combines clonic generalized, focal or unilateral seizures, beginning within the first year of life, often triggered by hyperthermia whatever its cause, including pertussis vaccination. Long-lasting febrile seizures are frequent in infancy and repeat status epilepticus (SE) has negative prognostic value. Massive myoclonus, rare absences, complex partial seizures and generalized spikes may appear several years later. Myoclonic status may occur in childhood, but acute encephalopathy with febrile SE followed by ischemic lesions and psychomotor impairment, the most severe condition, occurs mainly within the first five years of life. Generalized tonic-clonic and tonic seizures in sleep predominate in adulthood. Non epileptic manifestations appear with age, including intellectual disability, ataxia and crouching gait. Incidence of SUDEP is high, whatever the age. SCN1A haploinsufficiency producing NaV1.1 dysfunction mainly affects GABAergic neurons. In cortical interneurons it explains epilepsy, in cerebellum the ataxia, in basal ganglia and motor neurons the crouching gait, in hypothalamus the thermodysregulation and sleep troubles, and dysfunction in all these structures contributes to psychomotor delay. Valproate, stiripentol, topiramate and bromide are the basis of antiepileptic treatment, whereas inhibitors of sodium channel worsen the condition. Benzodiazepines seem to facilitate acute encephalopathy when given chronically, and they should be restricted to SE. Ketogenic diet is useful in both chronic and acute conditions. Only targeting SCN1A haploinsufficiency and NaV1.1 dysfunction could improve non epileptic manifestations of this condition that deserves being considered as a disease, not only as an epilepsy syndrome.

DMD and West syndrome.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is the most frequent muscular dystrophy in childhood, with a worldwide incidence of one in 5000 live male births. It is due to mutations in the dystrophin gene leading to absence of full-length dystrophin protein. Central nervous system involvement is well-known in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. The multiple dystrophin isoforms expressed in brain have important roles in cerebral development and functioning. The association of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy with seizures has been reported, and there is a higher prevalence of epilepsy in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy patients (between 6.3% and 12.3%) than in the general pediatric population (0.5-1%). Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy patients may present with focal seizures, generalized tonic-clonic seizures or absences. We report on two boys in whom Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is associated with epileptic spasms and hypsarrhythmia that fulfil the criteria for West syndrome, thus extending the spectrum of seizure types described in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy patients.

Occasional seizures, epilepsy, and inborn errors of metabolism.

Seizures are a common paediatric problem, with inborn errors of metabolism being a rare underlying aetiology. The clinical presentation of inborn errors of metabolism is often associated with other neurological symptoms, such as hypotonia, movement disorders, and cognitive disturbances. However, the occurrence of epilepsy associated with inborn errors of metabolism represents a major challenge that needs to be identified quickly; for some cases, specific treatments are available, metabolic decompensation might be avoided, and accurate counselling can be given about recurrence risk. Some clinical presentations are more likely than others to point to an inborn error of metabolism as the cause of seizures. Knowledge of important findings at examination, and appropriate biochemical investigation of children with seizures of uncertain cause, can aid the diagnosis of an inborn error of metabolism and ascertain whether or not the seizures are amenable to specific metabolic treatment.