Challenging the stability of RAN development: Acknowledging PA and Gf in relation to reading.

This study had two overriding goals, (1) examine the stability of rapid automatized naming (RAN) in predicting reading achievement while taking into account two other frequently studied constructs, phonological awareness and fluid intelligence (Gf) and (2) examine the predictive power of RAN measured at age 4 on reading ability. The stable pattern of RAN development found in a previously reported growth model was challenged by relating phonological awareness and Gf to the model. Children (N = 364) were followed from age 4 to age 10. At age 4, Gf related strongly to phonological awareness, which in turn related strongly to RAN. The relations between the RAN measures over time was largely unaffected by the inclusion of Gf and phonological awareness. RAN, Gf and phonological awareness at age 4 independently predicted latent factors reflecting reading-related abilities in grade 1 and grade 4. However, when scrutinizing type of reading measure in grade 4, Gf, phonological awareness and RAN at age 4 predicted both spelling and reading fluency, whereas RAN in grade 2 did not predict spelling but was the strongest predictor of reading fluency.

Shared Book Reading in Preschool Supports Bilingual Children's Second-Language Learning: A Cluster-Randomized Trial.

This cluster-randomized controlled study examined dual language learners (DLLs) in Norway who received a book-based language intervention program. About 464 DLLs aged 3-5 years in 123 early childhood classrooms participated in the study. The children were acquiring Norwegian as their second language in preschool and spoke a variety of first languages at home. They received a researcher-developed intervention that was organized around loosely scripted, content-rich shared reading in school and at home. Receiving the intervention had significant impacts on the children's second-language skills (effect sizes of d = .25-.66). In addition to supporting second-language vocabulary and grammar, the program with its focus on perspective taking during shared reading resulted in impacts on children's ability to shift perspectives and understand others' emotional states.

Rapid automatized naming in a developmental perspective between ages 4 and 10.

During the last decades, rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been widely examined as a predictor of reading ability, but very few studies have examined the development of RAN itself. The present study followed children from ages 4 until 10, focusing on RAN performance in a developmental perspective. Relations within and between alphanumeric and nonalphanumeric RAN were investigated both concurrently and over time. The result shows that individual differences in RAN objects are stable between ages 4 and 10, with the most rapid growth of mean performance between ages 4 and 6. Early performance on RAN objects predicts both performance on RAN digits and RAN letters at age 8 and the further development between ages 8 and 10. Further, low-performing children at age 4 develop their performance on RAN digits and RAN letters later compared with high-performing children, and RAN digits performance reaches a plateau earlier than RAN letters performance.

Academic performance, externalizing disorders and depression: 26,000 adolescents followed into adulthood.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of major depression among adults has been shown to be socially differentiated, and there are reasons to seek explanations for this before adulthood. In this cohort study, we examined whether academic performance in adolescence predicts depression in adulthood, and the extent to which externalizing disorders explain this association. METHODS: We followed 26,766 Swedish women and men born 1967-1982 from the last year of compulsory school, at age about 16, up to 48 years of age. We investigated the association between grade point average (GPA, standardized by gender) and first diagnosis of depression in national registers of in- or out-patient psychiatric care. We used Cox proportional hazards models, adjusting for lifetime externalizing diagnoses and potential confounders including childhood socioeconomic position and IQ. RESULTS: During follow-up, 7.0% of the women and 4.4% of the men were diagnosed with depression. A GPA in the lowest quartile, compared with the highest, was associated with an increased risk in both women (hazard ratio 95% confidence interval 1.7, 1.3-2.1) and men (2.9, 2.2-3.9) in models controlling for potential confounders. Additional control for externalizing disorders attenuated the associations, particularly in women. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that poor academic performance is associated with depression in young adulthood and that the association is partly explained by externalizing disorders. Our results indicate the importance of early detection and management of externalizing disorders among children and adolescents.

Sentence repetition is a measure of children's language skills rather than working memory limitations.

Sentence repetition tasks are widely used in the diagnosis and assessment of children with language difficulties. This paper seeks to clarify the nature of sentence repetition tasks and their relationship to other language skills. We present the results from a 2-year longitudinal study of 216 children. Children were assessed on measures of sentence repetition, vocabulary knowledge and grammatical skills three times at approximately yearly intervals starting at age 4. Sentence repetition was not a unique longitudinal predictor of the growth of language skills. A unidimensional language latent factor (defined by sentence repetition, vocabulary knowledge and grammatical skills) provided an excellent fit to the data, and language abilities showed a high degree of longitudinal stability. Sentence repetition is best seen as a reflection of an underlying language ability factor rather than as a measure of a separate construct with a specific role in language processing. Sentence repetition appears to be a valuable tool for language assessment because it draws upon a wide range of language processing skills.

The influence of fluid and crystallized intelligence on the development of knowledge and skills.

BACKGROUND: Cattell's Gf-Gc distinction is quite generally recognized. However, the developmental part of the Gf-Gc theory of intelligence has not gained the same recognition. Results are inconsistent, but recent discussions emphasize the importance of homogeneity of samples with regard to education and language when investigating the developmental Investment theory. AIMS: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of Gf and Gc on the development of knowledge and skills in a sample of children in compulsory school who are homogenous with regard to level of education, age, and cultural background. SAMPLE: Totally, 9,002 individuals from the evaluation through follow-up database born in 1972 and who left compulsory school in 1988 were included. These individuals were followed up in Grades 3, 6, and 9. METHODS: Structural equation modelling was used, and autoregressive path models were fitted. All modelling was performed using Mplus version 6.1. RESULTS: In the first step, a path model with a simplex structure was defined. However, a second model with direct relations of Gf on Gc in Grades 6 and 9 had better model fit, suggesting a continuous influence of Gf on Gc. However, no direct influence of Gf was found for the subject grades. CONCLUSION: Due to the continuous influence of Gf on the measures of Gc throughout compulsory school, support for Cattell's (1987) Investment theory was found.

The specificity versus generality of ball-handling skills - Empirical evidence for a general ball-handling ability.

The purpose of this study was to investigate if ball-handling skills are specific and uncorrelated (i.e., motor specificity), or if they share an underlying ball-handling ability (i.e., motor generality). To empirically investigate this question, we had a sample of 201 adolescents perform 12 novel ball-handling tasks. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we showed that a model based on the assumptions of the generality perspective was superior to a model based on assumptions of specificity. The general ball-handling factor did significantly influence the performance on all 12 tasks, with factor loadings ranging between 0.39 and 0.79. The results and it's practical implications are discussed in relation to development of sport specific skills.

Childhood IQ and mortality during 53 years' follow-up of Swedish men and women.

BACKGROUND: The association between childhood cognitive ability measured with IQ tests and mortality is well documented. However, studies on the association in women are few and conflicting, and the mechanisms underlying the association are unclear. METHODS: Data on IQ were collected at school at age 13 among 19 919 men and women born in 1948 and 1953. Information on childhood socioeconomic position, the participants' socioeconomic and social circumstances in middle age and mortality up to 2013 was collected through national registers. RESULTS: Lower IQ was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality among men (1070 cases, HR 1.31, 95% CI 1.23 to 1.39 for one SD decrease in IQ) and among women (703 cases, HR 1.16, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.25). IQ was associated with mortality from several causes of death in men, and cancer and cardiovascular disorder mortality in women. Adjustment for socioeconomic factors in childhood and, in particular, in adulthood attenuated the associations considerably in men and near completely in women. CONCLUSION: Lower IQ was associated with an increased risk of mortality in men and women. The explanatory effects of socioeconomic factors in adulthood suggest that they constitute an important pathway in the association between IQ and mortality, especially in women.

Perceived Demands of Schooling, Stress and Mental Health: Changes from Grade 6 to Grade 9 as a Function of Gender and Cognitive Ability.

The link between perceived demands of school, stress and mental health in relation to gender is complex. The study examined, with two waves of longitudinal data at age 13 and age 16, how changes in perceived academic demands relate to changes in perceived stress, taking into account gender and cognitive ability, and to investigate how these factors affect the level of psychosomatic and depressive symptoms at the age of 16. A nationally representative sample including about 9000 individuals from the Swedish longitudinal Evaluation Through Follow up database born in 1998 was included. A growth modelling approach was applied to examine relations over time. The results show girls to have a considerably higher self-reported level of mental health problems at the end of compulsory school than boys. This gender difference is entirely accounted for by perceived school demands and stress in grades 6 and 9. Students who were stronger in inductive than vocabulary ability reported lower levels of perceived academic demands and less stress in grade 6. There is a need to develop interventions for minimizing the consequences of stress among adolescents and modify those particular aspects of academic demands which cause stress and poor mental health, especially among girls. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Immediate and delayed effects of invented writing intervention in preschool.

This study examined the effects of a 10 week invented writing program with five-year-old preschoolers (mean age 5.7 years) on their immediate post intervention literacy skills and also the facilitative effects of the intervention on the subsequent learning to read during the first 6 months of schooling. The study included 105 children (54 girls) from 12 preschools in Norway. The preschools were randomly assigned to the experimental group with the invented writing program, or the control group with the ordinary program offered to preschoolers. The classroom-based programs (40 sessions) were conducted by the children's regular teachers. The children's emergent literacy skills were evaluated using a pre-test, a post-test and a follow-up test 6 months later, and the data were analyzed using latent autoregressive models. The results showed that the invented writing group performed significantly better than the control group on the post-test for the measures of phoneme awareness (d = .54), spelling (d = .65) and word reading (d = .36). Additionally, indirect effects were observed on the delayed follow-up tests on phoneme awareness (d = .45), spelling (d = .48) and word reading (d = .26). In conclusion, we argue that invented writing appeared to smooth the progress of emergent literacy skills in preschool, including the subsequent reading development in school. Contextualized in a semi-consistent orthography and a preschool tradition that does not encourage the learning of written language skills, the findings add to our knowledge of how children learn to write and read.

Screening for Language Delay: Growth Trajectories of Language Ability in Low- and High-Performing Children.

Purpose: This study investigated the stability and growth of preschool language skills and explores latent class analysis as an approach for identifying children at risk of language impairment. Method: The authors present data from a large-scale 2-year longitudinal study, in which 600 children were assessed with a language-screening tool (LANGUAGE4) at age 4 years. A subsample (n = 206) was assessed on measures of sentence repetition, vocabulary, and grammatical knowledge at ages 4, 5, and 6 years. Results: A global latent language factor showed a high degree of longitudinal stability in children between the ages of 4 to 6 years. A low-performing group showing a language deficit compared to their age peers at age 4 was identified on the basis of the LANGUAGE4. The growth-rates during this 2-year time period were parallel for the low-performing and 3 higher performing groups of children. Conclusions: There is strong stability in children's language skills between the ages of 4 and 6 years. The results demonstrate that a simple language screening measure can successfully identify a low-performing group of children who show persistent language weaknesses between the ages of 4 and 6 years.

Student assessment of teaching as a source of information about aspects of teaching quality in multiple subject domains: an application of multilevel bifactor structural equation modeling.

Research on educational effectiveness most often uses student assessments of classroom instruction for measuring aspects of teaching quality. Given that crucial inferences on the success of education are based on these assessments, it is essential to ensure that they provide valid indicators. In this study, we illustrate the application of an innovative application of a multilevel bifactor structural equation model (ML-BFSEM) to examine the validity of student assessments. Analyzing a large-scale data set of 12,077 fourth-grade students in three countries (Finland, Norway, and Sweden), we find that (i) three aspects of teaching quality and subject domain factors can be established; (ii) metric and scalar invariance could be established for the ML-BFSEM approach across countries; and (iii) significant relations between students' assessments of how easy the teacher is to understand and achievement in all subjects exist. In support of substantive research, we demonstrate a methodological approach for representing the complex nature of student assessments of teaching quality. We finally encourage substantive and methodological researchers to advance the ML-BFSEM.

IQ and alcohol-related morbidity and mortality among Swedish men and women: the importance of socioeconomic position.

AIMS: To investigate the association between intelligence in childhood and later risk of alcohol-related disease and death by examining (1) the mediating effect of social position as an adult and (2) gender as a possible moderator. DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: 21 809 Swedish men and women, born in 1948 and 1953, from the Swedish "Evaluation Through Follow-up" database were followed until 2006/2007. MEASUREMENTS: IQ was measured in school at the age of 13 and alcohol-related disease and death (International Classification of Disease codes) were followed from 1971 and onwards. FINDINGS: We found an increased crude HR of 1.23 (95% CI 1.18 to 1.29) for every decrease in group of IQ test results for alcohol-related admissions and 1.14 (95% CI 1.04 to 1.24) for alcohol-related death. Social position as an adult was found to mediate both outcomes. Gender was not found to moderate the association. However, adjusting for socioeconomic position lowered the risk more among men than among women. CONCLUSIONS: There was an inverse, graded association between IQ and alcohol-related disease and death, which at least partially was mediated by social position as an adult. For alcohol-related death, complete mediation by socioeconomic position as an adult was found. Gender does not moderate this association. The role of socioeconomic position may differ between the genders.

Decline in cognitive performance between ages 13 and 18 years and the risk for psychosis in adulthood: a Swedish longitudinal cohort study in males.

CONTEXT: Clear evidence from many prospective, population-based studies indicates that patients who develop psychosis in adulthood experienced various cognitive deficits during childhood and adolescence. However, it is unclear whether these deficits become more severe during adolescence. OBJECTIVE: To assess the influence of cognitive developmental trajectories in adolescence and young adulthood on the risk for psychosis in adulthood. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: Academic research. POPULATION-BASED COHORTS: Four population-based cohorts of adolescent boys and young men born in Sweden in 1953, 1967, 1972, and 1977, totaling 10,717 individuals, and followed up through December 31, 2006. EXPOSURE: Scores on tests of verbal, spatial, and inductive ability at age 13 years and in equivalent tests at army conscription (age 18 years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Hospital admissions for nonaffective or affective psychoses in adulthood. RESULTS: A relative decline (compared with the unaffected population) in verbal ability between ages 13 and 18 years was associated with increased risk for schizophrenia and for other nonaffective and affective psychoses (adjusted hazard ratio for schizophrenia for an increase of 1 SD in verbal ability, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.40-0.88; P = .009). Decline between ages 13 and 18 years was a much stronger predictor of psychosis than the verbal ability score at age 18 years alone. The association remained significant after adjustment for urbanicity, parental educational level, and family history of psychosis and persisted when cases with onset before age 25 years were excluded, indicating that this was not a prodromal effect. CONCLUSIONS: A relative decline in cognitive performance in adolescence and young adulthood, particularly in verbal ability, is associated with increased risk for psychosis in adulthood, and a relative decline in verbal ability between ages 13 and 18 years is a stronger predictor of psychosis than verbal ability at age 18 years alone. This suggests an impairment of late neurodevelopment affecting the acquisition of verbal skills in adolescent boys and young men who later develop psychosis.

A longitudinal analysis of the relationship between changes in socio-economic status and changes in health.

In this paper we contribute to discussion on the relationship between different aspects of socio-economic status (SES) and health. Separating different aspects of SES facilitates the specification of a structural relationship between SES indicators and morbidity. Longitudinal data and the utilization of growth curve modelling enable an empirical analysis of the direct relationship between changes over time in SES indicators and changes in morbidity. Our empirical analysis is based on panel data (N = 2976) derived from the annual Swedish Survey of Living Conditions. The panel, which consists of respondents that at the first panel wave were between 31 and 47 years old, is followed for 16 years, starting in 1979. Data are gathered at three points of time. A growth curve model is set up using structural equation modelling. The structural relationship and changes over time are simultaneously estimated. It is shown that in relation to health occupational position is crucial, canalising the effects of class of origin and education. More prestigious jobs are related to initially good health and to a less rapid deterioration in health. At the same time initial health affects occupational mobility, confirming a health selection into less prestigious jobs. It is also shown that change of occupation and income are related to change in health. The analysis confirms a strong relationship between SES and morbidity and shows that initial SES affects later changes in morbidity, i.e., a causal relationship exists between SES and morbidity. But, the analysis also demonstrates the existence of selection effects, meaning that initial morbidity causes less favourable changes in SES. It is finally revealed that changes in occupational prestige and income changes co-vary with changes in morbidity. Hence, the analysis provides basic information necessary to make any assumption about causality and selection in relation to SES and health.

Individuals, schools, and neighborhood: a multilevel longitudinal study of variation in incidence of psychotic disorders.

CONTEXT: Incidence of schizophrenia and other nonaffective psychoses is greater in urban than rural areas, but the reason is unclear. Few studies have examined whether both individual and neighborhood characteristics can explain this association. Furthermore, as has been shown for ethnicity, the effect of individual characteristics may depend on neighborhood context. OBJECTIVES: To examine (1) whether individual, school, or area characteristics are associated with psychosis and can explain the association with urbanicity and (2) whether effects of individual characteristics on risk of psychosis vary according to school context (reflecting both peer group and neighborhood effects). DESIGN: Multilevel longitudinal study of all individuals born in Sweden in 1972 and 1977. Diagnoses were identified through linkage with the Swedish National Patient Register until December 31, 2003. SETTING: Population-based. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 203 829 individuals with data at individual, school, municipality, and county levels. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Any nonaffective psychosis, including schizophrenia (881 subjects; 0.43% cumulative incidence). For the study of interactions, the outcome was any psychosis (1944 subjects; 0.95% cumulative incidence). RESULTS: Almost all the variance in risk of nonaffective psychosis was explained by individual-level rather than higher-level variation. An association between urbanicity and nonaffective psychosis was explained by higher-level characteristics, primarily school-level social fragmentation. We observed cross-level interactions between individual- and school-level markers of ethnicity, social fragmentation, and deprivation on risk of developing any psychotic disorder, all with qualitative patterns of interaction. CONCLUSIONS: The association between urbanicity and psychosis appears to be a reflection of increased social fragmentation present within cities. The qualitative interactions observed are consistent with a hypothesis that certain characteristics that define individuals as being different from most other people in their local environment may increase risk of psychosis. These findings have potentially important implications for understanding the etiology of psychotic disorders and for informing social policy.

Construct validation of the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test by means of the Swedish Enlistment Battery.

The construct validity of the Swedish Scholastic Test (SweSAT), used for admissions to higher education, was studied through relating it to the Computerized Enlistment Battery (CAT-SEB) used at conscription to military service. Out of three male age cohorts tested at 18 years with the CAT-SEB in 1997, 1998, or 1999 six groups of men that had taken their first SweSAT in the Autumn (n= 3,163; 2,938; 2,820) the same year, or in the Spring (n= 3,238; 2,587; 2,447) the next year were used for the analyses. Four types of models were fitted to the tests: (1) a nested factor model with the latent variables general intelligence (g), crystallized intelligence (Gc) and general visualization; (2) a higher order model with g as an apex factor; (3) a multivariate regression model where the SeSAT subtests were regressed on the SEB factors; and (4) separate models of SweSAT and CAT-SEB with covariances between latent variables. The results show that the SweSAT is dominated by Gc factors and that the g factor has a smaller influence.