Neutron crystallography and quantum chemical analysis of bilin reductase PcyA mutants reveal substrate and catalytic residue protonation states.

PcyA, a ferredoxin-dependent bilin pigment reductase, catalyzes the site-specific reduction of the two vinyl groups of biliverdin (BV), producing phycocyanobilin. Previous neutron crystallography detected both the neutral BV and its protonated form (BVH+) in the wildtype (WT) PcyA-BV complex, and a nearby catalytic residue Asp105 was found to have two conformations (protonated and deprotonated). Semiempirical calculations have suggested that the protonation states of BV are reflected in the absorption spectrum of the WT PcyA-BV complex. In the previously determined absorption spectra of the PcyA D105N and I86D mutants, complexed with BV, a peak at 730 nm, observed in the WT, disappeared and increased, respectively. Here, we performed neutron crystallography and quantum chemical analysis of the D105N-BV and I86D-BV complexes to determine the protonation states of BV and the surrounding residues and study the correlation between the absorption spectra and protonation states around BV. Neutron structures elucidated that BV in the D105N mutant is in a neutral state, whereas that in the I86D mutant is dominantly in a protonated state. Glu76 and His88 showed different hydrogen bonding with surrounding residues compared with WT PcyA, further explaining why D105N and I86D have much lower activities for phycocyanobilin synthesis than the WT PcyA. Our quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations of the absorption spectra showed that the spectral change in D105N arises from Glu76 deprotonation, consistent with the neutron structure. Collectively, our findings reveal more mechanistic details of bilin pigment biosynthesis.

Amphiphilic triphenylamine-benzothiadiazole dyes: preparation, fluorescence and aggregation behavior, and enzyme fluorescence detection.

Fluorescence change systems that can respond to biological objects have attracted attention for use as biological probes and sensors. In this study, we report emission enhancement in a fluorescent aggregate composed of amphiphilic donor-acceptor dye molecules. The emission efficiency of the aggregate was reduced upon introducing a hydrophilic galactopyranose moiety, because of the decrease in the aggregate stability, which in turn was due to disruption of the hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity balance. In contrast, emission enhancement could be achieved by treatment with ß-galactosidase, as a result of the removal of the galactopyranose moiety. The change in aggregate stabilization based on the hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity balance leads to the emission enhancement into detectable ß-galactosidase activity.

Insights into the Proton Transfer Mechanism of a Bilin Reductase PcyA Following Neutron Crystallography.

Phycocyanobilin, a light-harvesting and photoreceptor pigment in higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, is synthesized from biliverdin IXα (BV) by phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA) via two steps of two-proton-coupled two-electron reduction. We determined the neutron structure of PcyA from cyanobacteria complexed with BV, revealing the exact location of the hydrogen atoms involved in catalysis. Notably, approximately half of the BV bound to PcyA was BVH(+), a state in which all four pyrrole nitrogen atoms were protonated. The protonation states of BV complemented the protonation of adjacent Asp105. The "axial" water molecule that interacts with the neutral pyrrole nitrogen of the A-ring was identified. His88 Nδ was protonated to form a hydrogen bond with the lactam O atom of the BV A-ring. His88 and His74 were linked by hydrogen bonds via H3O(+). These results imply that Asp105, His88, and the axial water molecule contribute to proton transfer during PcyA catalysis.

Inactivation of the conserved open reading frame ycf34 of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 interferes with the photosynthetic electron transport chain.

Ycf34 is a hypothetical chloroplast open reading frame that is present in the chloroplast genomes of several non-green algae. Ycf34 homologues are also encoded in all sequenced genomes of cyanobacteria. To evaluate the role of Ycf34 we have constructed and analysed a cyanobacterial mutant strain. Inactivation of ycf34 in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 showed no obvious phenotype under normal light intensity growth conditions. However, when the cells were grown under low light intensity they contained less and smaller phycobilisome antennae and showed a strongly retarded growth, suggesting an essential role of the Ycf34 polypeptide under light limiting conditions. Northern blot analysis revealed a very weak expression of the phycocyanin operon in the ycf34 mutant under light limiting growth in contrast to the wild type and to normal light conditions. Oxygen evolution and P(700) measurements showed impaired electron flow between photosystem II and photosystem I under these conditions which suggest that the impaired antenna size is most likely due to a highly reduced plastoquinone pool which triggers regulation on a transcriptional level. Using a FLAG-tagged Ycf34 we found that this protein is tightly bound to the thylakoid membranes. UV-vis and Mössbauer spectroscopy of the recombinant Ycf34 protein demonstrate the presence of an iron-sulphur cluster. Since Ycf34 lacks homology to known iron-sulphur cluster containing proteins, it might constitute a new type of iron-sulphur protein implicated in redox signalling or in optimising the photosynthetic electron transport chain.

Structural insights into vinyl reduction regiospecificity of phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA).

Phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA) is the best characterized member of the ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductase family. Unlike other ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductases that catalyze a two-electron reduction, PcyA sequentially reduces D-ring (exo) and A-ring (endo) vinyl groups of biliverdin IXalpha (BV) to yield phycocyanobilin, a key pigment precursor of the light-harvesting antennae complexes of red algae, cyanobacteria, and cryptophytes. To address the structural basis for the reduction regiospecificity of PcyA, we report new high resolution crystal structures of bilin substrate complexes of PcyA from Synechocystis sp. PCC6803, all of which lack exo-vinyl reduction activity. These include the BV complex of the E76Q mutant as well as substrate-bound complexes of wild-type PcyA with the reaction intermediate 18(1),18(2)-dihydrobiliverdin IXalpha (18EtBV) and with biliverdin XIIIalpha (BV13), a synthetic substrate that lacks an exo-vinyl group. Although the overall folds and the binding sites of the U-shaped substrates of all three complexes were similar with wild-type PcyA-BV, the orientation of the Glu-76 side chain, which was in close contact with the exo-vinyl group in PcyA-BV, was rotated away from the bilin D-ring. The local structures around the A-rings in the three complexes, which all retain the ability to reduce the A-ring of their bound pigments, were nearly identical with that of wild-type PcyA-BV. Consistent with the proposed proton-donating role of the carboxylic acid side chain of Glu-76 for exo-vinyl reduction, these structures reveal new insight into the reduction regiospecificity of PcyA.

Expression, purification and preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of cyanobacterial biliverdin reductase.

Biliverdin reductase (BVR) catalyzes the conversion of biliverdin IX α to bilirubin IX α with concomitant oxidation of an NADH or NADPH cofactor. This enzyme also binds DNA and enhances the transcription of specific genes. Recombinant cyanobacterial BVR was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified and crystallized. A native data set was collected to 2.34 Šresolution on beamline BL38B1 at SPring-8. An SeMet data set was collected from a microcrystal (300×10×10 µm) on the RIKEN targeted protein beamline BL32XU and diffraction spots were obtained to 3.0 Šresolution. The native BVR crystal belonged to space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a=58.8, b=88.4, c=132.6 Å. Assuming that two molecules are present in the asymmetric unit, VM (the Matthews coefficient) was calculated to be 2.37 Å3 Da(-1) and the solvent content was estimated to be 48.1%. The structure of cyanobacterial BVR may provide insights into the mechanisms of its enzymatic and physiological functions.

One residue substitution in PcyA leads to unexpected changes in tetrapyrrole substrate binding.

Phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA) catalyzes the sequential reduction of the vinyl group of the D-ring and A-ring of biliverdin IXα (BV), using reducing equivalents provided by ferredoxin. This reaction produces phycocyanobilin, a pigment used for light-harvesting and light-sensing in red algae and cyanobacteria. The crystal structure of PcyA-BV reveals that BV is specifically bound in the PcyA active pocket through extensive hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions. During the course of a mutational study of PcyA, we observed that mutation of the V225 position, apart from the processing sites, conferred an unusual property on PcyA; V225D mutant protein could bind BV and its analog BV13, but these complexes showed a distinct UV-vis absorption spectrum from that of the wild-type PcyA-BV complex. The crystal structures of BV- and BV13-bound forms of V225D protein revealed that gross structural changes occurred near the substrate-binding pocket, and that the BV/BV13 binding manner in the pocket was dramatically altered. Protein folding in V225D-BV/BV13 was more similar to that of substrate-free PcyA than that in PcyA-BV; the "induced-fit" did not occur when BV/BV13 was bound to the V225D protein. The unexpected structural change presented here provides a cautionary note about interpreting functional data derived from a mutated protein in the absence of its exact structure.

A substrate-bound structure of cyanobacterial biliverdin reductase identifies stacked substrates as critical for activity.

Biliverdin reductase catalyses the last step in haem degradation and produces the major lipophilic antioxidant bilirubin via reduction of biliverdin, using NAD(P)H as a cofactor. Despite the importance of biliverdin reductase in maintaining the redox balance, the molecular details of the reaction it catalyses remain unknown. Here we present the crystal structure of biliverdin reductase in complex with biliverdin and NADP+. Unexpectedly, two biliverdin molecules, which we designated the proximal and distal biliverdins, bind with stacked geometry in the active site. The nicotinamide ring of the NADP+ is located close to the reaction site on the proximal biliverdin, supporting that the hydride directly attacks this position of the proximal biliverdin. The results of mutagenesis studies suggest that a conserved Arg185 is essential for the catalysis. The distal biliverdin probably acts as a conduit to deliver the proton from Arg185 to the proximal biliverdin, thus yielding bilirubin.

Induced-fitting and electrostatic potential change of PcyA upon substrate binding demonstrated by the crystal structure of the substrate-free form.

Phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA) catalyzes the sequential reduction of the vinyl group of the D-ring and the A-ring of biliverdin IXalpha (BV) using ferredoxin to produce phycocyanobilin, a pigment used for light-harvesting and light-sensing in red algae and cyanobacteria. We have determined the crystal structure of the substrate-free form of PcyA from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 at 2.5 A resolution. Structural comparison of the substrate-free form and the PcyA-BV complex shows major changes around the entrance of the BV binding pocket; upon BV binding, two alpha-helices and nearby side-chains move to produce tight BV binding. Unexpectedly, these movements localize the positive charges around the BV binding site, which may contribute to the proper binding of ferredoxin to PcyA. In the substrate-free form, the side-chain of Asp105 was located at a site that would be underneath the BV A-ring in the PcyA-BV complex and hydrogen-bonded with His88. We propose that BV is protonated by a mechanism involving conformational changes of these two residues before reduction.

Atomic-resolution structure of the phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase I86D mutant in complex with fully protonated biliverdin.

Phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA) catalyzes the reduction of biliverdin (BV) to produce phycocyanobilin, a linear tetrapyrrole pigment used for light harvesting and light sensing. Spectroscopic and HPLC analyses inidicate that BV bound to the I86D mutant of PcyA is fully protonated (BVH+ ) and can accept an electron, but I86D is unable to donate protons for the reduction; therefore, compared to the wild-type PcyA, the I86D mutant stabilizes BVH+ . To elucidate the structural basis of the I86D mutation, we determined the atomic-resolution structure of the I86D-BVH+ complex and the protonation states of the essential residues Asp105 and Glu76 in PcyA. Our study revealed that Asp105 adopted a fixed conformation in the I86D mutant, although it had dual conformations in wild-type PcyA which reflected the protonation states of BV. Taken together with biochemical/spectroscopic results, our analysis of the I86D-BVH+ structure supports the hypothesis that flexibility of Asp105 is essential for the catalytic activity of PcyA.

Associations between oral health behavior and anxiety about water fluoridation and motivation to establish water fluoridation in Japanese residents.

Since 1972, community water fluoridation programs have not been practiced in Japan. Risk perception among the population plays an important role in the implementation of water fluoridation programs. The oral health behavior of Japanese children has changed, especially due to recent increases among children in the use of fluoridated products and fluoride applications by dentists. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between oral health behavior, risk perception, and the desire to implement water fluoridation among Japanese residents. We distributed a questionnaire survey (response rate: 92.8%) to mothers with children aged two or three years (n = 573). There was a correlation between anxiety and level of motivation to implement water fluoridation (Spearman coefficient: 0.355, P < 0.001). Exposure to various fluoride experiences was higher in the "not anxious" group. The motivation level was significantly higher in subjects who had a better understanding of the effectiveness of fluoride, those who used fluoride tooth paste, and those whose children received fluoride applications from dentists. We conclude that increased knowledge of and experience with fluoride might help decrease the perception of risk and increase motivation for implementing water fluoridation among the general public.

Crystal structure of phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase in complex with biliverdin IXalpha, a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of phycocyanobilin.

Phytobilins (light harvesting and photoreceptor pigments in higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria) are synthesized from biliverdin IXalpha (BV) by ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductases (FDBRs). Phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA), one such FDBR, is a new class of radical enzymes that require neither cofactors nor metals and serially reduces the vinyl group of the D-ring and A-ring of BV using four electrons from ferredoxin to produce phycocyanobilin, one of the phytobilins. We have determined the crystal structure of PcyA from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in complex with BV, revealing the first tertiary structure of an FDBR family member. PcyA is folded in a three-layer alpha/beta/alpha sandwich structure, in which BV in a cyclic conformation is positioned between the beta-sheet and C-terminal alpha-helices. The basic patch on the PcyA surface near the BV molecule may provide a binding site for acidic ferredoxin, allowing direct transfer of electrons to BV. The orientation of BV is definitely fixed in PcyA by several hydrophilic interactions and the shape of the BV binding pocket of PcyA. We propose the mechanism by which the sequential reduction of the D- and A-rings is controlled, where Asp-105, located between the two reduction sites, would play the central role by changing its conformation during the reaction. Homology modeling of other FDBRs based on the PcyA structure fits well with previous genetic and biochemical data, thereby providing a structural basis for the reaction mechanism of FDBRs.

Crystal structure of dimeric heme oxygenase-2 from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in complex with heme.

Phycobiliproteins, light-harvesting proteins in cyanobacteria, red algae, and cryptophytes, contain phycobilin pigments. Phycobilins are synthesized from biliverdin, which is produced by the oxidative cleavage of the heme porphyrin ring catalyzed by heme oxygenase (HO). Two paralogs of ho (ho1 and ho2) have been identified in the genome of the cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The recombinant proteins of both paralogs (Syn HO-1 and Syn HO-2) possess in vitro heme degradation activity. We have determined the crystal structures of Syn HO-2 in complex with heme (heme-Syn HO-2) and its reduced and NO bound forms. The heme-Syn HO-2 crystal was a nonmerohedral twin, and detwinned diffraction data were used to refine the structure. Although heme-Syn HO-2 shares common folding with other HOs, the C-terminal segment is ordered and turns back to the heme-binding side. Gel-filtration chromatography analysis and molecular packing in the crystal indicate that heme-Syn HO-2 forms a homodimer, in which the C-terminal ordered segments interact with each other. Because Syn HO-2 is a monomer in the apo state, the dimeric interaction may aid in the selection of the reducing partner but likely does not interfere with heme binding. The heme iron is coordinated by a water molecule in the ferric form, but the distal water is absent in the ferrous form. In all of the Syn HO-2 structures, several water molecules form a hydrogen-bond network at the distal hemepocket, which is involved in HO activity. Upon NO binding, the side-chain conformation of Tyr 156 changes. Tyr 156 is located at the hydrophobic cluster, which interrupts the possible H(+) pathway from the molecular surface to the hemepocket. Thus, Tyr 156 may function as a H(+) shuttle by changing conformation.