Comparing immunochromatography with latex antigen agglutination testing for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis in cats, dogs and koalas.

Although the point-of-care cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay (LFA) has revolutionized the diagnosis of cryptococcosis in human patients, to date there has been no large-scale examination of this test in animals. We therefore assessed the LFA in cats, dogs and koalas suspected of having cryptococcosis. In sum, 528 serum specimens (129 from cats, 108 from dogs, 291 from koalas) were tested using the LFA and one of two commercially available latex cryptococcal antigen agglutination test (LCAT) kits. The LCAT is a proven and well-accepted method in veterinary patients and therefore taken as the "gold standard" against which the LFA was compared. The LFA achieved a sensitivity of 92%, 100%, and 98% in cats, dogs, and koalas, respectively, with corresponding negative predictive values of 94%, 100%, and 98%. The specificity of the LFA was 81%, 84%, and 62% for cats, dogs, and koalas, respectively, with corresponding positive predictive values of 76%, 48%, and 69%. These findings suggest the most appropriate role for the LFA is as a screening test to rule out a diagnosis of cryptococcosis in cats, dogs, and koalas. Point-of-care accessibility makes it equally suited for use in the field and as a cage-side test in veterinary hospitals. The suboptimal specificity of the LFA makes it less suited to definitive confirmation of cryptococcosis in animals; therefore, all LFA-positive test results should be confirmed by LCAT testing. The discrepancy between these observations and the high specificity of the LFA in humans may reflect differences in the host-pathogen interactions amongst the species.

Mental Experiences in Wild Animals: Scientifically Validating Measurable Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses.

The mental experiences of animals are what characterises their welfare status. The Five Domains Model for assessing welfare aligns with the understanding that physical and mental states are linked. Following measurement of indicators within each of the four physical/functional Domains (1. Nutrition; 2. Physical environment; 3. Health; and 4. Behavioural interactions), the anticipated negative or positive affective consequences (mental experiences) are cautiously inferred and assigned to Domain 5. Those inferences derive credibility from validated knowledge of the underlying systems of physiology, neurophysiology, neuroethology and affective neuroscience. Any indicators used for assessing welfare need to be scientifically validated. This requires, firstly, evidence of the links between a measurable/observable indicator and the physical/functional impact (in Domains 1 to 4), and secondly, a demonstrable relationship between the physical/functional impact and the mental experience it is inferred the indicators reflect (in Domain five). This review refers to indicators of physical/functional states in Domains 1 to 4, which have been shown to be measurable in free-roaming wild horses, and then evaluates the scientific evidence linking them to inferred mental experiences in Domain 5. This is the first time that the scientific evidence validating a comprehensive range of welfare indicators has been synthesised in this way. Inserting these indicators into the Five Domains Model enables transparently justifiable assessment and grading of welfare status in free-roaming horses.

Review of the Foundational Knowledge Required for Assessing Horse Welfare.

A detailed understanding of what is usual for a species under optimal conditions is critical for identifying and interpreting different features of body function that have known impacts on animal welfare and its assessment. When applying the Five Domains Model to assess animal welfare, the key starting point is therefore to acquire extensive species-specific knowledge relevant to each of the four physical/functional Domains of the Model. These Domains, 1 to 4, address areas where objective information is evaluated and collated. They are: (1) Nutrition; (2) Physical environment; (3) Health; and (4) Behavioural interactions. It is on the basis of this detailed knowledge that cautious inferences can then be made about welfare-relevant mental experiences animals may have, aligned with Domain 5, Mental State. However, this review is focused entirely on the first four Domains in order to provide a novel holistic framework to collate the multidisciplinary knowledge of horses required for undertaking comprehensive welfare assessments. Thus, inferring the potential mental experiences aligned with Domain 5, the final step in model-based welfare assessments, is not considered here. Finally, providing extensive information on free-roaming horses enables a better understanding of the impacts of human interventions on the welfare of horses in both free-roaming and domestic situations.

Ethical Treatment of Invasive and Native Fauna in Australia: Perspectives through the One Welfare Lens.

The One Welfare concept is proposed to guide humans in the ethical treatment of non-human animals, each other and the environment. One Welfare was conceptualized for veterinarians but could be a foundational concept through which to promote the ethical treatment of animals that are outside of direct human care and responsibility. However, wild-living animals raise additional ethical conundrums because of their multifarious values and roles, and relationships that humans have with them. At an open facilitated forum, the 2018 Robert Dixon Memorial Animal Welfare Symposium, a panel of five experts from different fields shared their perspectives on "loving and hating animals in the wild" and responded to unscripted questions from the audience. The Symposium's objectives were to elucidate views on the ethical treatment of the native and invasive animals of Australia and to identify some of the resultant dilemmas facing conservationists, educators, veterinarians and society. Here, we document the presented views and case studies and synthesize common themes in a One Welfare framework. Additionally, we identified points of contention that can guide further discourse. With this guide in place, the identification and discussion of those disparate views was a first step toward practical resolutions on how to manage wild-living Australian fauna ethically. We concluded that there was great utility in the One Welfare approach for any discourse about wild animal welfare. It requires attention to each element of the triple bottom line and ensures that advocacy for one party does not vanquish the voices from other sectors. We argue that, by facilitating a focus on the ecology in the context of wild animal issues, One Welfare is more useful in this context than the veterinary context for which it was originally developed.

Use of Remote Camera Traps to Evaluate Animal-Based Welfare Indicators in Individual Free-Roaming Wild Horses.

We previously developed a Ten-Stage Protocol for scientifically assessing the welfare of individual free-roaming wild animals using the Five Domains Model. The protocol includes developing methods for measuring or observing welfare indices. In this study, we assessed the use of remote camera traps to evaluate an extensive range of welfare indicators in individual free-roaming wild horses. Still images and videos were collected and analysed to assess whether horses could be detected and identified individually, which welfare indicators could be reliably evaluated, and whether behaviour could be quantitatively assessed. Remote camera trapping was successful in detecting and identifying horses (75% on still images and 72% on video observation events), across a range of habitats including woodlands where horses could not be directly observed. Twelve indicators of welfare across the Five Domains were assessed with equal frequency on both still images and video, with those most frequently assessable being body condition score (73% and 79% of observation events, respectively), body posture (76% for both), coat condition (42% and 52%, respectively), and whether or not the horse was sweating excessively (42% and 45%, respectively). An additional five indicators could only be assessed on video; those most frequently observable being presence or absence of weakness (66%), qualitative behavioural assessment (60%), presence or absence of shivering (51%), and gait at walk (50%). Specific behaviours were identified in 93% of still images and 84% of video events, and proportions of time different behaviours were captured could be calculated. Most social behaviours were rarely observed, but close spatial proximity to other horses, as an indicator of social bonds, was recorded in 36% of still images, and 29% of video observation events. This is the first study that describes detailed methodology for these purposes. The results of this study can also form the basis of application to other species, which could contribute significantly to advancing the field of wild animal welfare.

The environmental needs of many Australian pet cats are not being met.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate whether Australian cat owners are effectively meeting their cats' environmental needs and to identify areas of deficiency that may have an impact on the cats' health and welfare. METHODS: An online survey investigating lifestyle factors and provision of environmental resources was distributed to Australian cat owners. RESULTS: In total, 12,010 respondents, representing cat-owning households, completed the survey. Altogether, 45.5% were single-cat households and 54.5% were multi-cat households, with a mean number of two cats per household. In total, 46.3% of households contained indoor cats, 51.8% contained indoor-outdoor cats and 1.8% had mostly outdoor cats. Dry food was the predominant food type in 59% of households and few respondents fed their cats in a manner that stimulates natural predatory behaviours. Altogether, 17.1% of households reported cats with urinary problems such as haematuria or urethral obstruction, and 19.8% reported inappropriate urination outside of the litter tray. The incidence of urinary problems was found to be significantly increased in multi-cat households, those with a low number of litter trays, less frequent cleaning of the trays of faeces and the use of crystal type litter. The veterinary clinic was the most common place to obtain advice about feeding and toileting management. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: An increased number of Australian households now contain multiple cats that live restricted or indoor lifestyles. Despite the majority of respondents claiming to have a lot of knowledge about cats and obtaining veterinary advice, deficiencies were identified in toileting facilities and feeding practices, which raises significant welfare concerns. Urinary tract disorders are an important cause of morbidity, mortality and relinquishment and its presence was associated with inadequate toileting facilities. Ongoing education of cat owners and an increased effort by veterinarians to include basic husbandry in preventative care consultations is critical to improving the welfare of pet cats.

A Ten-Stage Protocol for Assessing the Welfare of Individual Non-Captive Wild Animals: Free-Roaming Horses (Equus Ferus Caballus) as an Example.

Knowledge of the welfare status of wild animals is vital for informing debates about the ways in which we interact with wild animals and their habitats. Currently, there is no published information about how to scientifically assess the welfare of free-roaming wild animals during their normal day-to-day lives. Using free-roaming horses as an example, we describe a ten-stage protocol for systematically and scientifically assessing the welfare of individual non-captive wild animals. The protocol starts by emphasising the importance of readers having an understanding of animal welfare in a conservation context and also of the Five Domains Model for assessing welfare. It goes on to detail what species-specific information is required to assess welfare, how to identify measurable and observable indicators of animals' physical states and how to identify which individuals are being assessed. Further, it addresses how to select appropriate methods for measuring/observing physical indicators of welfare, the scientific validation of these indicators and then the grading of animals' welfare states, along with assigning a confidence score. Finally, grading future welfare risks and how these can guide management decisions is discussed. Applying this ten-stage protocol will enable biologists to scientifically assess the welfare of wild animals and should lead to significant advances in the field of wild animal welfare.

Feline thyroid carcinoma: diagnosis and response to high-dose radioactive iodine treatment.

This study reports the scintigraphy, histopathology, sole treatment with high-dose radioactive iodine and outcome of eight cases of feline thyroid carcinoma. Scintigraphic findings were variable and in 7/8 cases scintigraphic features could not reliably distinguish whether the thyroid tissue was malignant. Histopathology revealed typical criteria of malignancy in all cases, with mitotic activity described most frequently (7/8 cases), followed by infiltration of local tissues (4/8 cases). Cellular pleomorphism was infrequently observed. Single high-dose (1100MBq I(131)) radioiodine therapy was successful in 6/8 cases, with complete resolution of hyperthyroidism, and was associated with prolonged survival times (181-2381 days). Sole treatment with high-dose radioiodine is a safe and effective treatment for functional thyroid carcinoma. The prognosis for feline thyroid carcinoma successfully treated with radioiodine is good, with extended survival times commonly achieved.

Scintigraphic findings in 120 hyperthyroid cats.

The aim of this study was to characterise the scintigraphic findings in a large population of hyperthyroid cats in order to determine the location of thyroid pathology in newly diagnosed hyperthyroid cats and those that had previously undergone thyroidectomy. A specific aim was to identify the proportion of cats with ectopic hyperfunctional thyroid tissue and characterise the scintigraphic and clinical features of this subset of cats. Nearly one in five hyperthyroid cats was identified to have multiple areas of hyperfunctional thyroid tissue and/or intrathoracic hyperfunctional thyroid tissue where surgical thyroidectomy would not be curative. In addition, this study demonstrated that scintigraphy cannot reliably distinguish between thyroid carcinoma and adenoma. Owners should always be warned about the possibility of ectopic thyroid tissue before thyroidectomy is performed. In this study, intrathoracic hyperfunctional thyroid tissue and multiple areas of increased radionuclide uptake (IRU) were a common feature of benign thyroid disease and responded well to treatment with low dose radioiodine.

Wild horse populations in south-east Australia have a high prevalence of Strongylus vulgaris and may act as a reservoir of infection for domestic horses.

Australia has over 400,000 wild horses, the largest wild equid population in the world, scattered across a range of different habitats. We hypothesised that wild horse populations unexposed to anthelmintics would have a high prevalence of Strongylus vulgaris infections. Verminous endarteritis and colic due to migrating S. vulgaris larvae is now absent or unreported in domestic horses in Australia, yet wild horses may pose a risk for its re-emergence. A total of 289 faecal egg counts (FECs) were performed across six remote wild horse populations in south-east Australia, of varying densities, herd sizes and habitats. Total strongyle egg counts ranged from 50 to 3740 eggs per gram (EPG, mean 1443) and 89% (257/289) of faecal samples had > 500 EPG, classifying them as 'high level shedders'. There were significant differences in mean total strongyle FECs between different locations, habitats and population densities. Occurrence of S. vulgaris was not predictable based on FECs of total strongyle eggs or small (<90 µm) strongyle eggs. A high prevalence of S. vulgaris DNA in faecal samples was demonstrated across all six populations, with an overall predicted prevalence of 96.7%. This finding is important, because of the ample opportunity for transmission to domestic horses. The high prevalence of S. vulgaris suggests vigilance is required when adopting wild horses, or when domestic horses graze in environments inhabited by wild horses. Appropriate veterinary advise is required to minimize disease risk due to S. vulgaris. Monitoring horses for S. vulgaris using larval culture or qPCR remains prudent. Gastrointestinal parasites in wild horse populations may also serve as parasite refugia, thus contributing to integrated parasite management when facing emerging anthelmintic resistance.

Evaluation of benazepril in cats with heart disease in a prospective, randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Heart disease is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in cats, but there is limited evidence of the benefit of any medication. HYPOTHESIS: The angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor benazepril would delay the time to treatment failure in cats with heart disease of various etiologies. ANIMALS: One hundred fifty-one client-owned cats. METHODS: Cats with heart disease, confirmed by echocardiography, with or without clinical signs of congestive heart failure, were recruited between 2002 and 2005 and randomized to benazepril or placebo in a prospective, multicenter, parallel-group, blinded clinical trial. Benazepril (0.5-1.0 mg/kg) or placebo was administered PO once daily for up to 2 years. The primary endpoint was treatment failure. Analyses were conducted separately for all-cause treatment failure (main analysis) and heart disease-related treatment failure (supportive analysis). RESULTS: No benefit of benazepril versus placebo was detected for time to all-cause treatment failure (P = .42) or time to treatment failure related to heart disease (P = .21). Hazard ratios (95% confidence interval [CI]) from multivariate analysis for benazepril compared with placebo were 1.00 (0.57-1.74) for all-cause failure, and 0.99 (0.50-1.94) for forward selection and 0.93 (0.48-1.81) for bidirectional selection models for heart disease-related failure. There were no significant differences between groups over time after administration of the test articles in left atrium diameter, left ventricle wall thickness, quality of life scores, adverse events, or plasma biochemistry or hematology variables. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Benazepril was tolerated well in cats with heart disease, but no evidence of benefit was detected.

Treatment and long-term follow-up of extrahepatic biliary obstruction with bilirubin cholelithiasis in a Somali cat with pyruvate kinase deficiency.

A 2-year-old female neutered Somali cat was presented with vomiting and acute onset jaundice 1 year after diagnosis of pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency. Diagnostic investigations revealed a moderate regenerative haemolytic anaemia, severe hyperbilirubinaemia and elevated liver enzymes. Ultrasonography revealed marked distension of the gall bladder and common bile duct (CBD), consistent with extrahepatic biliary obstruction (EHBO). At cholecystotomy, the gall bladder contained purulent material, and two obstructive choleliths were removed from the CBD by choledochotomy. The cat recovered from surgery uneventfully, and serum liver enzymes and bilirubin normalised within 10 days. Postoperative treatment consisted of cephalexin, metronidazole and ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA). Bacterial culture of the gall bladder contents yielded a pure growth of an Actinomyces species. Cholelith analysis revealed that they consisted of 100% bilirubin. Antibiotic treatment was stopped 4 weeks after surgery but UDCA was continued indefinitely. The cat remains clinically well with no recurrence of cholelithiasis 20 months after initial presentation. This is the first report of successful treatment and long-term follow-up of a cat with EHBO due to bilirubin cholelithiasis in association with PK deficiency-induced chronic haemolysis.

Management and monitoring of hyperthyroid cats: a survey of Australian veterinarians.

Objectives This study sought to evaluate how Australian veterinarians approach management and monitoring of feline hyperthyroidism and compare these results with a similar survey recently performed in the UK. Methods An invitation to complete an online survey was sent to veterinarians in all states and territories of Australia. The survey comprised questions relating to management of hyperthyroidism, use of antithyroid drugs vs radioiodine treatment vs surgical thyroidectomy, in addition to demographic information for respondents. Results A total of 546 clinicians completed the survey. The most commonly preferred treatments for long-term management of feline hyperthyroidism were antithyroid medications (305/546; 56%) and radioiodine (210/546; 38%), with substantially more respondents selecting radioiodine when cost was removed as a consideration (425/546; 78%). However, most respondents had treated or referred few cases for radioiodine (median 2). Most veterinarians (500/546; 92%) used antithyroid medications either long term or prior to definitive treatment of hyperthyroidism. For medical management, 45% (244/546) of veterinarians used twice-daily carbimazole. Half of respondents (274/546) aimed to maintain the total thyroxine concentration anywhere within the laboratory reference interval in hyperthyroid cats without chronic kidney disease. Blood pressure monitoring was uncommon. Surgical thyroidectomy was rarely performed. Conclusions and relevance Radioiodine was more frequently preferred by Australian veterinarians compared with those in the UK, likely associated with greater availability, reduced cost and shorter hospitalisation times in this jurisdiction, although antithyroid medications were the most frequently used treatment modality. Barriers remain to its utilisation, however, including perceived cost, misconceptions with regard to expected success rate and accessibility. Recent changes to recommendations on the management and monitoring of hyperthyroid cats do not appear to have been widely adopted by veterinarians at this time.

Metastatic pulmonary carcinomas in cats ('feline lung-digit syndrome'): further variations on a theme.

CASE SERIES SUMMARY: The aim of this retrospective case series was to describe seven cases where cats with primary lung tumours were presented because of metastases to extra-pulmonary sites ('feline lung-digit syndrome'). Specifically, we wanted to emphasise less typical case descriptions where tumour emboli resulted in lesions developing in the musculature (including the muscles of the head), skin or distal aorta. RELEVANCE AND NOVEL INFORMATION: The cases are presented to increase clinical awareness of this entity in feline practice, especially when characteristic combinations of clinical signs are present. When clinicians have a high index of suspicion for these presentations, radiology (thorax and digits) or ultrasound (distal aorta), combined with collection of fine needle aspirate specimens for cytology, are usually sufficient to secure a definitive diagnosis. Novel information in this series includes CT and MRI findings from some cases. Typically, needle aspiration or biopsy targeting the skin, digits and lesions in musculature is far easier compared with sampling the primary tumour site in the lungs. The differential diagnosis and investigation of multiple digital lesions is also considered.

Primary hyperaldosteronism in the cat: a series of 13 cases.

Thirteen cases of feline primary hyperaldosteronism were diagnosed based on clinical signs, serum biochemistry, plasma aldosterone concentration, adrenal imaging and histopathology of adrenal tissue. Two cases presented with blindness caused by systemic hypertension, whilst the remaining 11 cases showed weakness resulting from hypokalaemic polymyopathy. Elevated concentrations of plasma aldosterone and adrenocortical neoplasia were documented in all cases. Seven cases had adrenal adenomas (unilateral in five and bilateral in two) and six had unilateral adrenal carcinomas. Three cases underwent medical treatment only with amlodipine, spironolactone and potassium gluconate; two cases survived for 304 and 984 days until they were euthanased because of chronic renal failure, whilst the third case was euthanased at 50 days following failure of the owner to medicate the cat. Ten cases underwent surgical adrenalectomy following a successful stabilisation period on medical management. Five cases remain alive at the time of writing with follow-up periods of between 240 and 1803 days. Three cases were euthanased during or immediately following surgery because of surgical-induced haemorrhage. One cat was euthanased 14 days after surgery because of generalised sepsis, whilst the remaining cat was euthanased 1045 days after surgery because of anorexia and the development of a cranial abdominal mass. It is recommended that primary hyperaldosteronism should be considered as a differential diagnosis in middle-aged and older cats with hypokalaemic polymyopathy and/or systemic hypertension and should no longer be considered a rare condition.

A retrospective study of 180 anaemic cats: features, aetiologies and survival data.

The study comprised 180 anaemic cats. Descriptive and survival data were obtained. Cats were classified by aetiology of anaemia development and degenerative, anomalous, metabolic, miscellaneous, neoplastic, infectious, inflammatory, immune-mediated, toxic, traumatic or vascular disease (DAMNITV) classification and anaemia severity. Sixty-four (35.6%) cats had mild [packed cell volume (PCV)/haematocrit (HCT) 20-24.9%], 58 (32.2%) moderate (14-19.9%), 23 (12.8%) severe (11-13.9%) and 35 (19.4%) very severe (<10.9%) anaemia. By aetiology of anaemia development, bone marrow (BM) abnormalities were more common (95, 52.8%) than haemorrhage (37, 20.6%) or haemolysis (19, 10.6%). By DAMNITV classification, infectious diseases were more common (39, 21.7%) than neoplasia (36, 20%), metabolic (21, 11.7%), trauma (15, 8.3%), miscellaneous (14, 7.8%), inflammatory (11, 6.1%), immune-mediated (11, 6.1%), anomalous (8, 4.4%), toxic (2, 1.1%) or vascular disease (1, 0.6%). BM abnormalities were significantly associated with more severe anaemia (P = 0.003). Most cats (112, 62.2%) survived to discharge whereas 55 (30.6%) were euthanased and 13 (7.2%) died. Survival to discharge was not associated with anaemia severity but was associated significantly with aetiology of anaemia development (P = 0.046), as cats with haemolysis were more likely to survive to discharge than cats with BM abnormalities. Survival to discharge was also associated significantly with DAMNITV classification (P = 0.010), with cats with neoplasia being less likely, and cats with immune-mediated disease more likely, to survive to discharge. Cox regression analysis found that survival was not associated with anaemia severity, but was associated with DAMNITV classification (P = 0.011) and age (P = 0.082), with cats with immune-mediated disease and younger cats more likely to survive.

AAFP and ISFM feline-friendly nursing care guidelines.

NURSING CARE: The term nursing care means different things to different people. The authors of these AAFP and ISFM Feline-Friendly Nursing Care Guidelines define nursing care as any interaction between the cat and the veterinary team (veterinarian, technician or nurse, receptionist or other support staff) in the clinic, or between the cat and its owner at home, that promotes wellness or recovery from illness or injury and addresses the patient's physical and emotional wellbeing. Nursing care also helps the sick or convalescing cat engage in activities that it would be unable to perform without help. GUIDELINES RATIONALE: The purpose of the Guidelines is to help all members of the veterinary team understand the basic concepts of nursing care, both in the clinic and at home. This includes methods for keeping the patient warm, comfortable, well nourished, clean and groomed. The Guidelines provide numerous practical tips gleaned from the authors' many years of clinical experience and encourage veterinary team members to look at feline nursing care in ways they previously may not have considered. OVERARCHING GOAL: The primary goal of feline-friendly nursing care is to make the cat feel safe and secure throughout its medical experience.

Laryngeal disease in cats: a retrospective study of 35 cases.

The aim of this retrospective study was to review the medical records of cats referred to the University of Bristol for investigation of laryngeal disease (n=35). Cases were categorised into one of four groups: cats with laryngeal paralysis (LP, n=14), laryngeal neoplasia (n=10), laryngeal inflammation (n=6), or miscellaneous laryngeal diseases (n=5). Laryngoscopy and echolaryngography were useful diagnostic techniques but histology was required for diagnosis of diseases other than LP. Two cats with lymphoma received chemotherapy achieving survival times of 60 and 1440 days. Four cats with LP were treated surgically, with a median survival time of 300 days (range 10-360 days) and six were treated conservatively with a median survival time of 780 days (range 300-2520 days). Three cats with inflammatory disease were treated medically and one by excision of the lesion. Two cats achieved survival times of 120 and 2800 days. Cats with LP, laryngeal lymphoma or laryngitis had excellent long-term survival following appropriate treatment.