Design, synthesis, and evaluation of imidazo[4,5-c]pyridin-4-one derivatives with dual activity at angiotensin II type 1 receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ.

Identification of a series of imidazo[4,5-c]pyridin-4-one derivatives that act as dual angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor antagonists and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) partial agonists is described. Starting from a known AT1 antagonist template, conformational restriction was introduced by incorporation of an indane ring that when combined with appropriate substitution at the imidazo[4,5-c]pyridin-4-one provided novel series 5 possessing the desired dual activity. The mode of interaction of this series with PPARγ was corroborated through the X-ray crystal structure of 12b bound to the human PPARγ ligand binding domain. Modulation of activity at both receptors through substitution at the pyridone nitrogen led to the identification of potent dual AT1 antagonists/PPARγ partial agonists. Among them, 21b was identified possessing potent dual pharmacology (AT1 IC(50) = 7 nM; PPARγ EC(50) = 295 nM, 27% max) and good ADME properties.

Discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as novel PKM2 activators.

The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase is an emerging target for antitumor therapy. In this letter, we describe the discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as potent and selective PKM2 activators which were found to have a novel binding mode. The original lead identified from high throughput screening was optimized into an efficient series via computer-aided structure-based drug design. Both a representative compound from this series and an activator described in the literature were used as molecular tools to probe the biological effects of PKM2 activation on cancer cells. Our results suggested that PKM2 activation alone is not sufficient to alter cancer cell metabolism.

Design and Synthesis of Functionally Active 5-Amino-6-Aryl Pyrrolopyrimidine Inhibitors of Hematopoietic Progenitor Kinase 1.

Immune activating agents represent a valuable class of therapeutics for the treatment of cancer. An area of active research is expanding the types of these therapeutics that are available to patients via targeting new biological mechanisms. Hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 (HPK1) is a negative regulator of immune signaling and a target of high interest for the treatment of cancer. Herein, we present the discovery and optimization of novel amino-6-aryl pyrrolopyrimidine inhibitors of HPK1 starting from hits identified via virtual screening. Key components of this discovery effort were structure-based drug design aided by analyses of normalized B-factors and optimization of lipophilic efficiency.

The flexible alignment of molecular structures using simulated annealing with weighted Lagrangian multipliers.

A framework for superimposing small molecules is presented. The proposed method consists of a simple atom-based, flexible alignment. The optimization procedure used in the alignment is based on a recently published variant of the simulated annealing whereby nonlinear constraints are accommodated using Lagrangian multipliers. It differs from other published superposition algorithms in that any number of nonlinear constraints can be readily imposed on the structural alignment directly through the objective function without assuming an a priori trade-off between competing conditions. These can include equality and equality constraints on distances, angles, and energy states. Examples illustrating the use of the proposed approach are also provided.

Structure-Based Drug Design and Synthesis of PI3Kα-Selective Inhibitor (PF-06843195).

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is a frequently dysregulated pathway in human cancer, and PI3Kα is one of the most frequently mutated kinases in human cancer. A PI3Kα-selective inhibitor may provide the opportunity to spare patients the side effects associated with broader inhibition of the class I PI3K family. Here, we describe our efforts to discover a PI3Kα-selective inhibitor by applying structure-based drug design (SBDD) and computational analysis. A novel series of compounds, exemplified by 2,2-difluoroethyl (3S)-3-{[2'-amino-5-fluoro-2-(morpholin-4-yl)-4,5'-bipyrimidin-6-yl]amino}-3-(hydroxymethyl)pyrrolidine-1-carboxylate (1) (PF-06843195), with high PI3Kα potency and unique PI3K isoform and mTOR selectivity were discovered. We describe here the details of the design and synthesis program that lead to the discovery of 1.

Characterization of cytochrome P450-mediated bioactivation of a compound containing the chemical scaffold, 4,5-dihydropyrazole-1-carboxylic acid-(4-chlorophenyl amide), to a chemically reactive p-chlorophenyl isocyanate intermediate in human liver microsomes.

Compound A (Cmpd A) was previously reported to form p-chlorophenyl isocyanate (CPIC), which was trapped by GSH to yield S- (N- [p-chlorophenyl] carbamoyl) glutathione adduct (SCPG) in the presence of human liver microsomes. In this study, P450 3A4 and 2C9 were demonstrated to be the enzymes mediating the activation of Cmpd A to CPIC in human liver microsomes based on inhibitory and correlation studies. Enzyme kinetics studies indicated that P450 3A4 was the primary enzyme involved in the activation of Cmpd A. In silico P450 3A4 active site docking of Cmpd A exhibited a low energy pose that orientated the pyrazole ring proximate to the heme iron atom, in which the distance between the C-3 and potential activated oxygen species was shown to be 3.4 A. Quantum molecular calculations showed that the electron density on C-3 was relatively higher than those on C-4 and C-5. These measurements suggested that the C-3 of Cmpd A was the preferred site of oxidation and hence predisposed Cmpd A in forming CPIC as previously proposed. The in silico prediction was corroborated by studies with the C-3 substituted analogue (methyl at C-3), which showed minimal conversion to CPIC in human liver microsomes. These results demonstrated a pivotal role for P450 3A4 in bioactivating Cmpd A by oxidizing at C-3 of the pyrazoline, hence facilitating the CPIC formation. Evidence of the bioactivation to CPIC in vivo was obtained by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analysis of urine samples from human subjects administered a structural analogue of Cmpd A. The presence of S-(N-[p-chlorophenyl] carbamoyl) N-acetyl l-cysteine (SCPAC) as well as p-chlorophenyl aniline (CPA) was unequivocally demonstrated in the urine samples. The chemical scaffold, 4,5-dihydropyrazole-1-carboxylic acid-[(4-chlorophenyl)-amide], was demonstrated to possess potential metabolic liability in forming a reactive intermediate, CPIC, in humans. Bioactivation to CPIC may cause undesirable side effects through its reactivity and subsequent conversion to CPA, an established rodent carcinogen.

Reviving B-Factors: Activating ALK Mutations Increase Protein Dynamics of the Unphosphorylated Kinase.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that can become oncogenic by activating mutations or overexpression. Full kinetic characterization of both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated wildtype and mutant ALK kinase domain was done. Our structure-based drug design programs directed at ALK allowed us to interrogate whether X-ray crystallography data could be used to support the hypothesis that activation of ALK by mutation occurs due to increased protein dynamics. Crystallographic B-factors were converted to normalized B-factors, which allowed analysis of wildtype ALK, ALK-C1156Y, and ALK-L1196M. This data suggests that mobility of the P-loop, αC-helix, and activation loop (A-loop) may be important in catalytic activity increases, with or without phosphorylation. Both molecular dynamics simulations and hydrogen-deuterium exchange experimental data corroborated the normalized B-factors data.

Virtual screening: are we there yet?

The cost of pharmaceutical development has increased dramatically in recent years, and many assorted approaches have been developed to decrease both the time and costs associated with bringing a drug to the market. Among these methods is the use of in silico screening of compound databases for potential new lead compounds, commonly referred to as virtual screening (VS). Virtual screening has become an integral part of the early discovery process in pharmaceutical development, readily observed by the large number of methodologies that have been published to date. Other reviews have been published detailing the various types of virtual screening methods in use. This work will review some of the virtual screening approaches and strategies that have been attempted to identify compounds to launch medicinal chemistry campaigns. Understanding trends and drivers in VS should help to set expectations about how and when VS could be used and what it can and cannot deliver and how it can be integrated in a successful screening campaign and used in a complementary fashion to HTS.

Discovery of 1-{(3R,4R)-3-[({5-Chloro-2-[(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)amino]-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-yl}oxy)methyl]-4-methoxypyrrolidin-1-yl}prop-2-en-1-one (PF-06459988), a Potent, WT Sparing, Irreversible Inhibitor of T790M-Containing EGFR Mutants.

First generation EGFR TKIs (gefitinib, erlotinib) provide significant clinical benefit for NSCLC cancer patients with oncogenic EGFR mutations. Ultimately, these patients' disease progresses, often driven by a second-site mutation in the EGFR kinase domain (T790M). Another liability of the first generation drugs is severe adverse events driven by inhibition of WT EGFR. As such, our goal was to develop a highly potent irreversible inhibitor with the largest selectivity ratio between the drug-resistant double mutants (L858R/T790M, Del/T790M) and WT EGFR. A unique approach to develop covalent inhibitors, optimization of reversible binding affinity, served as a cornerstone of this effort. PF-06459988 was discovered as a novel, third generation irreversible inhibitor, which demonstrates (i) high potency and specificity to the T790M-containing double mutant EGFRs, (ii) minimal intrinsic chemical reactivity of the electrophilic warhead, (iii) greatly reduced proteome reactivity relative to earlier irreversible EGFR inhibitors, and (iv) minimal activity against WT EGFR.

QT interval prolongation: and the beat goes on.

Consideration of QT interval prolongation and the risk for developing torsade de pointes is a critical issue in the evaluation of new bioactive agents. Over the past several years, there has been a dramatic increase in understanding the I(Kr) channel and its role in the duration of the action potential and cardiac repolarization. Furthermore, a variety of factors and situations have been identified that can increase the risk of QT interval prolongation. In this brief summary, an overview of the hERG channel and QT prolongation will be presented. The basic electro-physiology of the heart, the related action potentials, and pre-clinical assays is reviewed. Further, an introduction to the current status of in silico efforts in predicting potential hERG blockers is discussed. Lastly, the strengths and weaknesses of each modeling method is presented along with insight to the appropriate use of each model.

Lessons in molecular recognition: the effects of ligand and protein flexibility on molecular docking accuracy.

The key to success for computational tools used in structure-based drug design is the ability to accurately place or "dock" a ligand in the binding pocket of the target of interest. In this report we examine the effect of several factors on docking accuracy, including ligand and protein flexibility. To examine ligand flexibility in an unbiased fashion, a test set of 41 ligand-protein cocomplex X-ray structures were assembled that represent a diversity of size, flexibility, and polarity with respect to the ligands. Four docking algorithms, DOCK, FlexX, GOLD, and CDOCKER, were applied to the test set, and the results were examined in terms of the ability to reproduce X-ray ligand positions within 2.0A heavy atom root-mean-square deviation. Overall, each method performed well (>50% accuracy) but for all methods it was found that docking accuracy decreased substantially for ligands with eight or more rotatable bonds. Only CDOCKER was able to accurately dock most of those ligands with eight or more rotatable bonds (71% accuracy rate). A second test set of structures was gathered to examine how protein flexibility influences docking accuracy. CDOCKER was applied to X-ray structures of trypsin, thrombin, and HIV-1-protease, using protein structures bound to several ligands and also the unbound (apo) form. Docking experiments of each ligand to one "average" structure and to the apo form were carried out, and the results were compared to docking each ligand back to its originating structure. The results show that docking accuracy falls off dramatically if one uses an average or apo structure. In fact, it is shown that the drop in docking accuracy mirrors the degree to which the protein moves upon ligand binding.

Prediction of drug-like molecular properties: modeling cytochrome p450 interactions.

Preventing drug-drug interactions and reducing drug-related mortalities dictate cleaner and costlier medicines. The cost to bring a new drug to market has increased dramatically over the last 10 years, with post-discovery activities (preclinical and clinical) costs representing the majority of the spend. With the ever-increasing scrutiny that new drug candidates undergo in the post-discovery assessment phases, there is increasing pressure on discovery to deliver higher-quality drug candidates. Given that compound attrition in the early clinical stages can often be attributed to metabolic liabilities, it has been of great interest lately to implement predictive measures of metabolic stability/ liability in the drug design stage of discovery. The solution to this issue is wrapped in understanding the basic of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes functions and structures. Recently, experimental information on the structure of a variety of cytochrome P450 enzymes, major contributors to phase I metabolism, has become readily available. This, coupled with the availability of experimental information on substrate specificities, has lead to the development of numerous computational models (macromolecular, pharmacophore, and structure-activity) for the rationalization and prediction of CYP liabilities. A comprehensive review of these models is presented in this chapter.

Discovery of a novel class of exquisitely selective mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (c-MET) protein kinase inhibitors and identification of the clinical candidate 2-(4-(1-(quinolin-6-ylmethyl)-1H-[1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-b]pyrazin-6-yl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)ethanol (PF-04217903) for the treatment of cancer.

The c-MET receptor tyrosine kinase is an attractive oncology target because of its critical role in human oncogenesis and tumor progression. An oxindole hydrazide hit 6 was identified during a c-MET HTS campaign and subsequently demonstrated to have an unusual degree of selectivity against a broad array of other kinases. The cocrystal structure of the related oxindole hydrazide c-MET inhibitor 10 with a nonphosphorylated c-MET kinase domain revealed a unique binding mode associated with the exquisite selectivity profile. The chemically labile oxindole hydrazide scaffold was replaced with a chemically and metabolically stable triazolopyrazine scaffold using structure based drug design. Medicinal chemistry lead optimization produced 2-(4-(1-(quinolin-6-ylmethyl)-1H-[1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-b]pyrazin-6-yl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)ethanol (2, PF-04217903), an extremely potent and exquisitely selective c-MET inhibitor. 2 demonstrated effective tumor growth inhibition in c-MET dependent tumor models with good oral PK properties and an acceptable safety profile in preclinical studies. 2 progressed to clinical evaluation in a Phase I oncology setting.

Discovery of a series of imidazo[4,5-b]pyridines with dual activity at angiotensin II type 1 receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ.

Mining of an in-house collection of angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists to identify compounds with activity at the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) revealed a new series of imidazo[4,5-b]pyridines 2 possessing activity at these two receptors. Early availability of the crystal structure of the lead compound 2a bound to the ligand binding domain of human PPARγ confirmed the mode of interaction of this scaffold to the nuclear receptor and assisted in the optimization of PPARγ activity. Among the new compounds, (S)-3-(5-(2-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)phenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-yl)-2-ethyl-5-isobutyl-7-methyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (2l) was identified as a potent angiotensin II type I receptor blocker (IC(50) = 1.6 nM) with partial PPARγ agonism (EC(50) = 212 nM, 31% max) and oral bioavailability in rat. The dual pharmacology of 2l was demonstrated in animal models of hypertension (SHR) and insulin resistance (ZDF rat). In the SHR, 2l was highly efficacious in lowering blood pressure, while robust lowering of glucose and triglycerides was observed in the male ZDF rat.

Binding thermodynamics of substituted diaminopyrimidine renin inhibitors.

Renin is an aspartyl protease involved in the production of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor. Renin inhibitors can prevent blood vessel constriction and therefore could be useful for the treatment of hypertension. High-throughput screening efforts identified a small molecule renin inhibitor with a core substituted diaminopyrimidine ring. Parallel medicinal chemistry efforts based on this lead resulted in compound 1. A complex of 1 bound to renin was crystallized, and structural data were obtained by X-ray diffraction. The structure indicated that there were adjacent unoccupied binding pockets. Synthetic efforts were initiated to extend functionality into these pockets so as to improve affinity and adjust pharmacokinetic parameters. Thermodynamics data for inhibitor binding to renin were also collected using isothermal titration calorimetry. These data were used to help guide inhibitor optimization by suggesting molecular alterations to improve binding affinity from both thermodynamic and structural perspectives. The addition of a methoxypropyl group extending into the S3 subpocket improved inhibitor affinity and resulted in greater binding enthalpy. Initial additions to the pyrimidine ring template that extended into the large hydrophobic S2 pocket did not improve affinity and dramatically altered the thermodynamic driving force for the binding interaction. Binding of the core template was enthalpically driven, whereas binding of initial inhibitors with S2 extensions was both enthalpically and entropically driven but lost significant binding enthalpy. Additional electrostatic interactions were then incorporated into the S2 extension to improve binding enthalpy while taking advantage of the favorable entropy.

Discovery of 6-ethyl-2,4-diaminopyrimidine-based small molecule renin inhibitors.

Novel 2,4-diaminopyrimidine-based small molecule renin inhibitors are disclosed. Through high throughput screening, parallel synthesis, X-ray crystallography, and structure based drug design, we have developed the first non-chiral, non-peptidic, small molecular template to possess moderate potency against renin. The designed compounds consist of a novel 6-ethyl-5-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-7-yl)pyrimidine-2,4-diamine ring system that exhibit moderate potency (IC(50): 91-650 nM) against renin while remaining 'Rule-of-five' compliant.

Rational design of 6-(2,4-diaminopyrimidinyl)-1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones as small molecule renin inhibitors.

We report the design and synthesis of a series of 6-(2,4-diaminopyrimidinyl)-1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones as orally bioavailable small molecule inhibitors of renin. Compounds with a 2-methyl-2-aryl substitution pattern exhibit potent renin inhibition and good permeability, solubility, and metabolic stability. Oral bioavailability was found to be dependent on metabolic clearance and cellular permeability, and was optimized through modulation of the sidechain that binds in the S3(sp) subsite.

Ketopiperazine-based renin inhibitors: optimization of the "C" ring.

A systematic investigation of the S3 sub-pocket activity requirements was conducted. It was observed that linear and sterically small side chain substituents are preferred in the S3 sub-pocket for optimal renin inhibition. Polar groups in the S3-sub-pocket were not well tolerated and caused a reduction in renin inhibitory activity. Further, compounds with clog P's < or = 3 demonstrated a dramatic reduction in CYP3A4 inhibitory activity.

Benzyl ether structure-activity relationships in a series of ketopiperazine-based renin inhibitors.

Inhibition of renin enzymatic activity by a series of ketopiperazine-based compounds containing a C6 benzyloxymethyl substituent correlated with a +(pi+sigma) effect. A 3-pyridinyloxymethyl substituent was also found to be equipotent as higher molecular weight analogs, and exhibited decreased CYP3A4 inhibition levels and improved pharmacokinetic properties.

Equipotent activity in both enantiomers of a series of ketopiperazine-based renin inhibitors.

We have found that both enantiomeric configurations of the 6-alkoxymethyl-1-aryl-2-piperazinone scaffold display equipotent renin inhibition activity and similar SAR patterns. This enantiomeric flexibility is in contrast to a previously reported 3-alkoxymethyl-4-arylpiperidine scaffold.