RESUMEN
A fiber-coupled, compact, remotely operated laser absorption instrument is developed for CO, CO2, and H2O measurements in reactive flows at the elevated temperatures and pressures expected in gas turbine combustor test rigs with target pressures from 1-25 bar and temperatures of up to 2000 K. The optical engineering for solutions of the significant challenges from the ambient acoustic noise (~120 dB) and ambient test rig temperatures (60 °C) are discussed in detail. The sensor delivers wavelength-multiplexed light in a single optical fiber from a set of solid-state lasers ranging from diodes in the near-infrared (~1300 nm) to quantum cascade lasers in the mid-infrared (~4900 nm). Wavelength-multiplexing systems using a single optical fiber have not previously spanned such a wide range of laser wavelengths. Gas temperature is inferred from the ratio of two water vapor transitions. Here, the design of the sensor, the optical engineering required for simultaneous fiber delivery of a wide range of laser wavelengths on a single optical line-of-sight, the engineering required for sensor survival in the harsh ambient environment, and laboratory testing of sensor performance in the exhaust gas of a flat flame burner are presented.
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We demonstrate the imaging of the thickness of liquid water thin films in the 100-1500 µm range at a constant temperature by monitoring the pixel-by-pixel ratio of absorbance at two near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths near 1400 nm detected with a fast framing InGaAs focal-plane array camera. Experiments were performed in reflection mode with films of pure water and water/ethanol mixtures supported on opaque surfaces using two illumination-detection configurations. One scheme uses specular reflection of incident and reflected linearly polarized diode-laser light at Brewster's angle, which enables detection of signal light that has twice traversed the liquid film with negligible interference from unwanted partial reflections of the incoming beams at the front surface interfaces (air/window and window/water for films constrained by a cover plate or air/water for free-standing films). The second configuration located the detection camera perpendicular above the surface where the detected light was transmitted through the sample and diffusely scattered from the support surface. Imaging measurements of film thickness using both configurations were successfully demonstrated. Time-resolved measurements capture the dynamics of flowing water films or waves generated by droplet impingement.
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We report the first application of cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) with a ps-pulsed UV laser for sensitive and rapid gaseous species time-history measurements in a transient environment (in this study, a shock tube). The broadband nature of the ps pulses enabled instantaneous coupling of the laser beam into roughly a thousand cavity modes, which grants excellent immunity to laser-cavity coupling noise in environments with heavy vibrations, even with an on-axis alignment. In this proof-of-concept experiment, we demonstrated an absorption gain of 49, which improved the minimum detectable absorbance by ~20 compared to the conventional single-pass strategy at similar experimental conditions. For absorption measurements behind reflected shock waves, an effective time-resolution of ~2 µs was achieved, which enabled time-resolved observations of transient phenomena, such as the vibrational relaxation of O(2) demonstrated here. The substantial improvement in detection sensitivity, together with microsecond measurement resolution implies excellent potential for studies of transient physical and chemical processes in nonequilibrium situations, particularly via measurements of weak absorptions of trace species in dilute reactive systems.
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The development and demonstration of a four-color single-ended mid-infrared tunable laser-absorption sensor for simultaneous measurements of H2O, CO2, CO, and temperature in combustion flows is described. This sensor operates by transmitting laser light through a single optical port and measuring the backscattered radiation from within the combustion device. Scanned-wavelength-modulation spectroscopy with second-harmonic detection and first-harmonic normalization (scanned-WMS-2f/1f) was used to account for variable signal collection and nonabsorption losses in the harsh environment. Two tunable diode lasers operating near 2551 and 2482 nm were utilized to measure H2O concentration and temperature, while an interband cascade laser near 4176 nm and a quantum cascade laser near 4865 nm were used for measuring CO2 and CO, respectively. The lasers were modulated at either 90 or 112 kHz and scanned across the peaks of their respective absorption features at 1 kHz, leading to a measurement rate of 2 kHz. A hybrid demultiplexing strategy involving both spectral filtering and frequency-domain demodulation was used to decouple the backscattered radiation into its constituent signals. Demonstration measurements were made in the exhaust of a laboratory-scale laminar methane-air flat-flame burner at atmospheric pressure and equivalence ratios ranging from 0.7 to 1.2. A stainless steel reflective plate was placed 0.78 cm away from the sensor head within the combustion exhaust, leading to a total absorption path length of 1.56 cm. Detection limits of 1.4% H2O, 0.6% CO2, and 0.4% CO by mole were reported. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this work represents the first demonstration of a mid-infrared laser-absorption sensor using a single-ended architecture in combustion flows.
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We report measured line intensities and temperature-dependent broadening coefficients of NH3 with Ar, N2, O2, CO2, H2O, and NH3 for nine sQ(J,K) transitions in the ν2 fundamental band in the frequency range 961.5-967.5 cm-1. This spectral region was chosen due to the strong NH3 absorption strength and lack of spectral interference from H2O and CO2 for laser-based sensing applications. Spectroscopic parameters were determined by multi-line fitting using Voigt lineshapes of absorption spectra measured with two quantum cascade lasers in thermodynamically-controlled optical cells. The temperature dependence of broadening was measured over a range of temperatures between 300 and 600 K. These measurements aid the development of mid-infrared NH3 sensors for a broad range of gas mixtures and at elevated temperatures.
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A direct measurement for the rate constant of the acetone dissociation reaction (CH3COCH3 = CH3CO + CH3) was conducted behind reflected shock wave, utilizing a sub-ppm sensitivity CO diagnostic achieved by cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS). The current experiment eliminated the influence from secondary reactions and temperature change by investigating the clean pyrolysis of <20 ppm acetone in argon. For the first time, the acetone dissociation rate constant (k1) was directly measured over 5.5 orders of magnitude with a high degree of accuracy: k1 (1004-1494 K, 1.6 atm) = 4.39 × 10(55) T(-11.394) exp(-52â¯140K/T) ± 24% s(-1). This result was seen to agree with most previous studies and has bridged the gap between their temperature and pressure conditions. The current work also served as an example demonstration of the potential of using the CEAS technique in shock-tube kinetics studies.
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We report the use of cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) using two distributed feedback diode lasers near 777.2 and 844.6 nm for sensitive, time-resolved, in situ measurements of excited-state populations of atomic oxygen in a shock tube. Here, a 1% O2/Ar mixture was shock-heated to 5400-8000 K behind reflected shock waves. The combined use of a low-finesse cavity, fast wavelength scanning of the lasers, and an off-axis alignment enabled measurements with 10 µs time response and low cavity noise. The CEAS absorption gain factors of 104 and 142 for the P35âS520 (777.2 nm) and P0,1,23âS310 (844.6 nm) atomic oxygen transitions, respectively, significantly improved the detection sensitivity over conventional single-pass measurements. This work demonstrates the potential of using CEAS to improve shock-tube studies of nonequilibrium electronic-excitation processes at high temperatures.
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Cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) using a mid-infrared DFB quantum-cascade laser is reported for sensitive time-resolved (10 µs) in situ CO measurements in a shock tube. Off-axis alignment and fast scanning of the laser wavelength were used to minimize coupling noise in a low-finesse cavity. An absorption gain factor of 91 was demonstrated, which enabled sub-ppm detection sensitivity for gas temperatures of 1000-2100K in a 15 cm diameter shock tube. This substantial improvement in detection sensitivity compared to conventional single-pass absorption measurements, shows great potential for the study of reaction pathways of high-temperature combustion kinetics mechanisms in shock tubes.
RESUMEN
We report the first application of cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (CEAS) using a coherent light source for sensitive and rapid gaseous species time-history measurements in a shock tube. Off-axis alignment and fast scanning of the laser wavelength were used to minimize coupling noise in a low-finesse cavity. An absorption gain factor of 83 with a measurement time resolution of 20 µs was demonstrated for C2H2 detection using a near-infrared transition near 1537 nm, corresponding to a noise-equivalent detection limit of 20 ppm at 296 K and 76 ppm at 906 K at 50 kHz. This substantial gain in signal, relative to conventional single-pass absorption, will enable ultra-sensitive species detection in shock tube kinetics studies, particularly useful for measurements of minor species and for studies of dilute reactive systems.
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The development and initial demonstration of a scanned-wavelength, first-harmonic-normalized, wavelength-modulation spectroscopy with nf detection (scanned-WMS-nf/1f) strategy for calibration-free measurements of gas conditions are presented. In this technique, the nominal wavelength of a modulated tunable diode laser (TDL) is scanned over an absorption transition to measure the corresponding scanned-WMS-nf/1f spectrum. Gas conditions are then inferred from least-squares fitting the simulated scanned-WMS-nf/1f spectrum to the measured scanned-WMS-nf/1f spectrum, in a manner that is analogous to widely used scanned-wavelength direct-absorption techniques. This scanned-WMS-nf/1f technique does not require prior knowledge of the transition linewidth for determination of gas properties. Furthermore, this technique can be used with any higher harmonic (i.e., n>1), modulation depth, and optical depth. Selection of the laser modulation index to maximize both signal strength and sensitivity to spectroscopic parameters (i.e., gas conditions), while mitigating distortion, is described. Last, this technique is demonstrated with two-color measurements in a well-characterized supersonic flow within the Stanford Expansion Tube. In this demonstration, two frequency-multiplexed telecommunication-grade TDLs near 1.4 µm were scanned at 12.5 kHz (i.e., measurement repetition rate of 25 kHz) and modulated at 637.5 and 825 kHz to determine the gas temperature, pressure, H2O mole fraction, velocity, and absorption transition lineshape. Measurements are shown to agree within uncertainty (1%-5%) of expected values.
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A two-color absorption spectroscopy strategy has been developed for measuring the column density and density-weighted path-average temperature of the absorbing species in nonuniform gases. This strategy uses two transitions with strengths that scale nearly linearly with temperature. In addition, measured lineshapes are used to accurately model absorbance spectra. As a result, the column density and density-weighted path-average temperature of the absorbing species can be inferred from a comparison of signals measured across a nonuniform line of sight (LOS) with simulated signals calculated using a uniform LOS. This strategy is demonstrated with simulations of water-vapor absorption across a nonuniform LOS with temperature and composition gradients comparable to those in hydrogen-air diffusion flames. In this demonstration, both the column density and density-weighted path-average temperature of water vapor are recovered to within 0.5%.
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We present a practical implementation of calibration-free wavelength-modulation spectroscopy with second harmonic detection (WMS-2f) for measurements of gas temperature and concentration in harsh environments. The method is applicable to measurements using lasers with synchronous wavelength and intensity modulation (such as injection current-tuned diode lasers). The key factors that enable measurements without the on-site calibration normally associated with WMS are (1) normalization of the WMS-2f signal by the first harmonic (1f) signal to account for laser intensity, and (2) the inclusion of laser-specific tuning characteristics in the spectral-absorption model that is used to compare with measured 1f-normalized, WMS-2f signals to infer gas properties. The uncertainties associated with the calibration-free WMS method are discussed, with particular emphasis on the influence of pressure and optical depth on the WMS signals. Many of these uncertainties are also applicable to calibrated WMS measurements. An example experimental setup that combines six tunable diode laser sources between 1.3 and 2.0 mum into one probe beam for measurements of temperature, H(2)O, and CO(2) is shown. A hybrid combination of wavelength and frequency demultiplexing is used to distinguish among the laser signals, and the optimal set of laser-modulation waveforms is presented. The system is demonstrated in the harsh environment of a ground-test scramjet combustor. A comparison of direct absorption and 1f-normalized, WMS-2f shows a factor of 4 increase in signal-to-noise ratio with the WMS technique for measurements of CO(2) in the supersonic flow. Multidimensional computational fluid-dynamics (CFD) calculations are compared with measurements of temperature and H(2)O using a simple method that accounts for the influence of line-of-sight (LOS) nonuniformity on the absorption measurements. The comparisons show the ability of the LOS calibration-free technique to gain useful information about multidimensional CFD models.
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A midinfrared absorption sensor for crank-angle-resolved in-cylinder measurements of gasoline concentration and gas temperature for spark-ignition internal-combustion engines is reported, and design considerations and validation testing in the controlled environments of a heated cell and shock-heated gases are discussed. Mid-IR laser light was tuned to transitions in the strong absorption bands associated with C-H stretching vibration near 3.4 microm, and time-resolved fuel vapor concentration and gas temperature were determined simultaneously from the absorption at two different wavelengths. These two infrared laser wavelengths were simultaneously produced by difference-frequency generation, which combines a near-IR signal laser with two near-IR pump lasers in a periodically poled lithium niobate crystal. Injection current modulation of the pump lasers produced intensity modulation of the mid-IR, which allowed the transmitted signals from the two laser wavelengths to be detected on a single detector and separated by frequency demultiplexing. Injection current modulation produced a wavelength modulation synchronous with the intensity modulation for each of the laser wavelengths, and accurate measurement of the gasoline absorption signal required the effects of wavelength modulation to be considered. Validation experiments were conducted for a single-component hydrocarbon fuel (2,2,4-trimethyl-pentane, commonly known as iso-octane) and a gasoline blend in a heated static cell (300 < or = T < or = 600 K) and behind planar shock waves (600 < T < 1100 K) in a shock tube. With a bandwidth of 10 kHz, the measured fuel concentrations agreed within 5% RMS and the measured temperature agreed within 3% RMS to the known values. The 10 kHz bandwidth is sufficient to resolve 1 crank-angle degree at 1600 RPM.
RESUMEN
Tunable diode laser absorption measurements at high pressures by use of wavelength-modulation spectroscopy (WMS) require large modulation depths for optimum detection of molecular absorption spectra blended by collisional broadening or dense spacing of the rovibrational transitions. Diode lasers have a large and nonlinear intensity modulation when the wavelength is modulated over a large range by injection-current tuning. In addition to this intensity modulation, other laser performance parameters are measured, including the phase shift between the frequency modulation and the intensity modulation. Following published theory, these parameters are incorporated into an improved model of the WMS signal. The influence of these nonideal laser effects is investigated by means of wavelength-scanned WMS measurements as a function of bath gas pressure on rovibrational transitions of water vapor near 1388 nm. Lock-in detection of the magnitude of the 2f signal is performed to remove the dependence on detection phase. We find good agreement between measurements and the improved model developed for the 2f component of the WMS signal. The effects of the nonideal performance parameters of commercial diode lasers are especially important away from the line center of discrete spectra, and these contributions become more pronounced for 2f signals with the large modulation depths needed for WMS at elevated pressures.
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A diagnostic for microsecond time-resolved temperature measurements behind shock waves, using ultraviolet laser absorption of vibrationally hot carbon dioxide, is demonstrated. Continuous-wave laser radiation at 244 and 266 nm was employed to probe the spectrally smooth CO2 ultraviolet absorption, and an absorbance ratio technique was used to determine temperature. Measurements behind shock waves in both nonreacting and reacting (ignition) systems were made, and comparisons with isentropic and constant-volume calculations are reported.
RESUMEN
Atomic hydrogen in the plume of a dc-arcjet plasma is monitored by use of two-photon excited laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) during the deposition of diamond film. The effluent of a dc-arc discharge in hydrogen and argon forms a luminous plume as it flows through a converging-diverging nozzle into a reactor. When a trace of methane (< 2%) is added to the flow in the diverging part of the nozzle, diamond thin film grows on a water-cooled molybdenum substrate from the reactive mixture. LIF of atomic hydrogen in the arcjet plume is excited to the 3S and 3D levels with two photons near 205 nm, and the subsequent fluorescence is observed at Balmer-alpha near 656 nm. Spatially resolved LIF measurements of atomic hydrogen are made as a function of the ratio of hydrogen to argon feedstock gas, methane addition, and reactor pressure. At lower reactor pressures, time-resolved LIF measurements are used to verify our collisional quenching correction algorithm. The quenching rate coefficients for collisions with the major species in the arcjet (Ar, H, and H2) do not change with gas temperature variations in the plume (T < 2300 K). Corrections of the LIF intensity measurements for the spatial variation of collisional quenching are important to determine relative distributions of the atomic hydrogen concentration. The relative atomic hydrogen concentrations measured here are calibrated with an earlier calorimetric determination of the feedstock hydrogen dissociation to provide quantitative hydrogen-atom concentration distributions.
RESUMEN
An accurate temperature measurement technique for steady, high-pressure flames is investigated using excitation wavelength-scanned laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) within the nitric oxide (NO) A-X(0, 0) band, and demonstration experiments are performed in premixed methane/air flames at pressures between 1 and 60 bars with a fuel/air ratio of 0.9. Excitation spectra are simulated with a computational spectral simulation program (LIFSim) and fit to the experimental data to extract gas temperature. The LIF scan range was chosen to provide sensitivity over a wide temperature range and to minimize LIF interference from oxygen. The fitting method is robust against elastic scattering and broadband LIF interference from other species, and yields absolute, calibration-free temperature measurements. Because of loss of structure in the excitation spectra at high pressures, background signal intensities were determined using a NO addition method that simultaneously yields nascent NO concentrations in the postflame gases. In addition, fluorescence emission spectra were also analyzed to quantify the contribution of background signal and to investigate interference in the detection band-width. The NO-LIF temperatures are in good agreement with intrusive single-color pyrometry. The proposed thermometry method could provide a useful tool for studing high-pressure flame chemistry as well as provide a standard to evaluate and validate fast-imaging thermometry techniques for practical diagnostics of high-pressure combustion systems.
RESUMEN
Tunable diode laser absorption measurements of gas temperature and water concentration were made at the exit of a model scramjet combustor fueled on JP-7. Multiplexed, fiber-coupled, near-infrared distributed feedback lasers were used to probe three water vapor absorption features in the 1.34-1.47 microm spectral region (2v1 and vl + v3 overtone bands). Ratio thermometry was performed using direct-absorption wavelength scans of isolated features at a 4-kHz repetition rate, as well as 2f wavelength modulation scans at a 2-kHz scan rate. Large signal-to-noise ratios demonstrate the ability of the optimally engineered optical hardware to reject beam steering and vibration noise. Successful measurements were made at full combustion conditions for a variety of fuel/air equivalence ratios and at eight vertical positions in the duct to investigate spatial uniformity. The use of three water vapor absorption features allowed for preliminary estimates of temperature distributions along the line of sight. The improved signal quality afforded by 2f measurements, in the case of weak absorption, demonstrates the utility of a scanned wavelength modulation strategy in such situations.
RESUMEN
A method that uses tunable diode lasers is developed for rapid temperature and concentration measurements of gases with highly broadened and congested spectra. Wavelength modulation absorption spectroscopy with 2f detection is utilized, because this derivative method offers benefits in dealing with blended spectral features. The 2f signal depends critically on the modulation depth of the laser alpha, which is increased to values above those typically achieved when wavelength modulation spectroscopy with diode lasers is performed. The 2f method with large modulation depths is validated by using near-IR diode lasers to probe pressure-broadened water-vapor features in the 1.4-microm region over a range of temperatures from 296 to 800 K and at pressures as high as 20 atm. Modulation depths as high as alpha = 0.8 cm(-1) are attained at modulation frequencies of 50 kHz and measurement bandwidths of 15 kHz. Comparisons of experimental results with 2f simulations, based on the HITRAN spectral database, provide confirmation of the capability of this method for rapid measurements of gas temperature and species concentration.
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A-X(0,1) excitation is a promising new approach for NO laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) diagnostics at elevated pressures and temperatures. We present what to our knowledge are the first detailed spectroscopic investigations within this excitation band using wavelength-resolved LIF measurements in premixed methane/air flames at pressures between 1 and 60 bar and a range of fuel/air ratios. Interference from O2 LIF is a significant problem in lean flames for NO LIF measurements, and pressure broadening and quenching lead to increased interference with increased pressure. Three different excitation schemes are identified that maximize NO/O2 LIF signal ratios, thereby minimizing the O2 interference. The NO LIF signal strength, interference by hot molecular oxygen, and temperature dependence of the three schemes are investigated.