Assessing the psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) in US college students.

Internet addiction is a growing concern; however, both a clear understanding of the mechanisms driving problematic behaviors and a gold standard instrument for assessing symptoms are lacking. The purpose of this study was to perform a psychometric analysis of the most widely used screening instrument, the Young Internet Addiction Test (IAT), using a sample of US college students. 215 (70% response rate) undergraduate college students were recruited from two US universities to complete an online version of the IAT. Using exploratory factor analysis, two factors were extracted, "dependent use" and "excessive use" which together explained 91% of the total variance. Participants who scored into the problematic user category of the IAT scored items on the dependent use scale an average of 0.8 ± 1.5 points higher and items on the excessive use scale an average of 1.4 ± 1.5 points higher than participants who scored in the average user category. Results suggest that Internet addiction symptoms may cluster into two separate components, dependent and excessive use. Further, the IAT appears to be a valid instrument for assessing Internet addiction in US college students.

Problematic internet usage in US college students: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Internet addiction among US college students remains a concern, but robust estimates of its prevalence are lacking. METHODS: We conducted a pilot survey of 307 college students at two US universities. Participants completed the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) as well as the Patient Health Questionnaire. Both are validated measures of problematic Internet usage and depression, respectively. We assessed the association between problematic Internet usage and moderate to severe depression using a modified Poisson regression approach. In addition, we examined the associations between individual items in the IAT and depression. RESULTS: A total of 224 eligible respondents completed the survey (73% response rate). Overall, 4% of students scored in the occasionally problematic or addicted range on the IAT, and 12% had moderate to severe depression. Endorsement of individual problematic usage items ranged from 1% to 70%. In the regression analysis, depressive symptoms were significantly associated with several individual items. Relative risk could not be estimated for three of the twenty items because of small cell sizes. Of the remaining 17 items, depressive symptoms were significantly associated with 13 of them, and three others had P values less than 0.10. There was also a significant association between problematic Internet usage overall and moderate to severe depression (relative risk 24.07, 95% confidence interval 3.95 to 146.69; P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of problematic Internet usage among US college students is a cause for concern, and potentially requires intervention and treatment amongst the most vulnerable groups. The prevalence reported in this study is lower than that which has been reported in other studies, however the at-risk population is very high and preventative measures are also recommended.

Feeling bad on Facebook: depression disclosures by college students on a social networking site.

BACKGROUND: Depression is common and frequently undiagnosed among college students. Social networking sites are popular among college students and can include displayed depression references. The purpose of this study was to evaluate college students' Facebook disclosures that met DSM criteria for a depression symptom or a major depressive episode (MDE). METHODS: We selected public Facebook profiles from sophomore and junior undergraduates and evaluated personally written text: "status updates." We applied DSM criteria to 1-year status updates from each profile to determine prevalence of displayed depression symptoms and MDE criteria. Negative binomial regression analysis was used to model the association between depression disclosures and demographics or Facebook use characteristics. RESULTS: Two hundred profiles were evaluated, and profile owners were 43.5% female with a mean age of 20 years. Overall, 25% of profiles displayed depressive symptoms and 2.5% met criteria for MDE. Profile owners were more likely to reference depression, if they averaged at least one online response from their friends to a status update disclosing depressive symptoms (exp(B) = 2.1, P <.001), or if they used Facebook more frequently (P <.001). CONCLUSION: College students commonly display symptoms consistent with depression on Facebook. Our findings suggest that those who receive online reinforcement from their friends are more likely to discuss their depressive symptoms publicly on Facebook. Given the frequency of depression symptom displays on public profiles, social networking sites could be an innovative avenue for combating stigma surrounding mental health conditions or for identifying students at risk for depression.

Problematic internet use and social networking site use among Dutch adolescents.

Problematic Internet use (PIU), defined as Internet use that is risky, excessive, or impulsive in nature and leads to adverse life consequences, is an emerging health concern among adolescents worldwide. Social networking site (SNS) use is among the most popular and common Internet use activities for youth; however, risks of SNS use for PIU remain unexplored. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of adolescents at risk for PIU within a national school-based sample of Dutch adolescents and to explore associations between SNS use and PIU. Adolescents were recruited from six public schools in the Netherlands to complete a survey, which included SNS use questions and the Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS). Logistic regression models were used to test associations between risk for PIU and demographic or SNS use variables. A total of 474 adolescents participated (98% response rate), and 11% (n=51) of adolescents were at risk for PIU. Risk for PIU was significantly associated with gender (p=0.015), increased age (p=0.034), and posting on SNS more than four times a day (p=0.003). Risk for PIU was not associated with number of SNS profiles, SNS preference or the number of online friends. Findings illustrate high risk groups for PIU includes males and older teens. Findings also illuminate that risk for PIU related to SNS was not associated with a specific SNS or number of SNSs used but was related to one's personal investment in SNSs by posting four or more times a day.

Effects of partial sleep deprivation on slow waves during non-rapid eye movement sleep: A high density EEG investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Changes in slow waves during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep in response to acute total sleep deprivation are well-established measures of sleep homeostasis. This investigation utilized high-density electroencephalography (hdEEG) to examine topographic changes in slow waves during repeated partial sleep deprivation. METHODS: Twenty-four participants underwent a 6-day sleep restriction protocol. Spectral and period-amplitude analyses of sleep hdEEG data were used to examine changes in slow wave energy, count, amplitude, and slope relative to baseline. RESULTS: Changes in slow wave energy were dependent on the quantity of NREM sleep utilized for analysis, with widespread increases during sleep restriction and recovery when comparing data from the first portion of the sleep period, but restricted to recovery sleep if the entire sleep episode was considered. Period-amplitude analysis was less dependent on the quantity of NREM sleep utilized, and demonstrated topographic changes in the count, amplitude, and distribution of slow waves, with frontal increases in slow wave amplitude, numbers of high-amplitude waves, and amplitude/slopes of low amplitude waves resulting from partial sleep deprivation. CONCLUSIONS: Topographic changes in slow waves occur across the course of partial sleep restriction and recovery. SIGNIFICANCE: These results demonstrate a homeostatic response to partial sleep loss in humans.

Screening for Adolescent Problematic Internet Use: Validation of the Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS).

OBJECTIVE: Problematic Internet use (PIU) is an emerging health concern that lacks screening measures validated for use with adolescents and young adults. This study aimed to validate the Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) for use with older adolescents and to increase its clinical utility by determining scoring guidelines and assessing the relationship between PIU and other mental health conditions. METHODS: This cross-sectional survey study took place at a large, public Midwestern university among 330 older adolescents aged 18 to 25 years. Confirmatory factor analysis and Spearman's correlations were used to assess the PRIUSS' structural and construct validity, respectively. A risk-based scoring cutoff was estimated using a Bayesian latent class modeling approach to computing a receiver operating characteristic curve. RESULTS: The confirmatory factor analysis indices for the 3-factor model indicated an acceptable fit (goodness-of-fit index 0.89, root mean square error of approximation 0.07). A cutoff of 25 (sensitivity 0.80, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.47-0.99; specificity 0.79, 95% CI 0.73-0.84) is proposed for identifying those at risk for PIU. Participants at risk for PIU were at significantly greater odds of also reporting symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (odds ratio [OR] 2.36 95% CI 1.21-4.62, P = .009), depression (OR 3.25, 95% CI 1.65-6.42, P = .008), and social anxiety (OR 3.77, 95% CI 2.06-6.89, P < .000). CONCLUSIONS: The PRIUSS demonstrated validity as a PIU screening instrument for adolescents and young adults. Screening for PIU may also help to identify those at high reciprocal risk for other mental health conditions.

The Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) for Adolescents and Young Adults: Scale Development and Refinement.

Problematic Internet use (PIU) is a growing health concern among adolescents and young adults. The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to develop and refine a theoretically-grounded and psychometrically-validated assessment instrument for PIU specifically tailored to adolescents and young adults. An item pool was developed using concept mapping and a review of the literature, and administered to 714 students from two universities between 18 and 25 years of age. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used in a development subsample (n=500) to construct the scale. A cross-validation sample (n=214) was used to confirm the scale's reliability. The Problematic and Risky Internet Use Screening Scale (PRIUSS) is an 18-item scale with three subscales: Social Impairment, Emotional Impairment, and Risky/Impulsive Internet Use. Based on its strong theoretical foundation and promising psychometric performance, the PRIUSS may be a valuable tool for screening and prevention efforts in this population.

"Facebook depression?" social networking site use and depression in older adolescents.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the association between social networking site (SNS) use and depression in older adolescents using an experience sample method (ESM) approach. METHODS: Older adolescent university students completed an online survey containing the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 depression screen (PHQ) and a week-long ESM data collection period to assess SNS use. RESULTS: Participants (N = 190) included in the study were 58% female and 91% Caucasian. The mean age was 18.9 years (standard deviation = .8). Most used SNSs for either <30 minutes (n = 100, 53%) or between 30 minutes and 2 hours (n = 74, 39%); a minority of participants reported daily use of SNS >2 hours (n = 16, 8%). The mean PHQ score was 5.4 (standard deviation = 4.2). No associations were seen between SNS use and either any depression (p = .519) or moderate to severe depression (p = .470). CONCLUSIONS: We did not find evidence supporting a relationship between SNS use and clinical depression. Counseling patients or parents regarding the risk of "Facebook Depression" may be premature.

A pilot evaluation of associations between displayed depression references on Facebook and self-reported depression using a clinical scale.

The objective of this study was to determine associations between displayed depression symptoms on Facebook and self-reported depression symptoms using a clinical screen. Public Facebook profiles of undergraduates from two universities were examined for displayed depression references. Profiles were categorized as depression symptom displayers or non-displayers. Participants completed an online PHQ-9 depression scale. Analyses examined associations between PHQ-9 score and depression symptom displayers versus non-displayers. The mean PHQ-9 score for non-displayers was 4.7 (SD = 4.0), the mean PHQ-9 score for depression symptom displayers was 6.4 (SD = 5.1; p = 0.018). A trend approaching significance was noted that participants who scored into a depression category by their PHQ-9 score were more likely to display depression symptom references. Displayed references to depression symptoms were associated with self-reported depression symptoms.

Problematic internet use among US youth: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate study quality and reported prevalence among the emergent area of problematic Internet use (PIU) research conducted in populations of US adolescents and college students. DATA SOURCES: We searched PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Knowledge from inception to July 2010. STUDY SELECTION: Using a keyword search, we evaluated English-language PIU studies with populations of US adolescents and college students. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Using a quality review tool based on the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement, 2 reviewers independently extracted data items including study setting, subject population, instrument used, and reported prevalence. RESULTS: Search results yielded 658 articles. We identified 18 research studies that met inclusion criteria. Quality assessment of studies ranged between 14 and 29 total points of a possible 42 points; the average score was 23 (SD 5.1). Among these 18 studies, 8 reported prevalence estimates of US college student PIU; prevalence rates ranged from 0% to 26.3%. An additional 10 studies did not report prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: The evaluation of PIU remains incomplete and is hampered by methodological inconsistencies. The wide range of conceptual approaches may have impacted the reported prevalence rates. Despite the newness of this area of study, most studies in our review were published more than 3 years ago. Opportunities exist to pursue future studies adhering to recognized quality guidelines, as well as applying consistency in theoretical approach and validated instruments.