Type IV Pilin Post-Translational Modifications Modulate Material Properties of Bacterial Colonies.

Bacterial type 4 pili (T4P) are extracellular polymers that initiate the formation of microcolonies and biofilms. T4P continuously elongate and retract. These pilus dynamics crucially affect the local order, shape, and fluidity of microcolonies. The major pilin subunit of the T4P bears multiple post-translational modifications. By interfering with different steps of the pilin glycosylation and phosphoform modification pathways, we investigated the effect of pilin post-translational modification on the shape and dynamics of microcolonies formed by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Deleting the phosphotransferase responsible for phosphoethanolamine modification at residue serine 68 inhibits shape relaxations of microcolonies after perturbation and causes bacteria carrying the phosphoform modification to segregate to the surface of mixed colonies. We relate these mesoscopic phenotypes to increased attractive forces generated by T4P between cells. Moreover, by deleting genes responsible for the pilin glycan structure, we show that the number of saccharides attached at residue serine 63 affects the ratio between surface tension and viscosity and cause sorting between bacteria carrying different pilin glycoforms. We conclude that different pilin post-translational modifications moderately affect the attractive forces between bacteria but have severe effects on the material properties of microcolonies.

Gene Transfer Efficiency in Gonococcal Biofilms: Role of Biofilm Age, Architecture, and Pilin Antigenic Variation.

UNLABELLED: Extracellular DNA is an important structural component of many bacterial biofilms. It is unknown, however, to which extent external DNA is used to transfer genes by means of transformation. Here, we quantified the acquisition of multidrug resistance and visualized its spread under selective and nonselective conditions in biofilms formed by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The density and architecture of the biofilms were controlled by microstructuring the substratum for bacterial adhesion. Horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between cocultured strains, each carrying a single resistance, occurred efficiently in early biofilms. The efficiency of gene transfer was higher in early biofilms than between planktonic cells. It was strongly reduced after 24 h and independent of biofilm density. Pilin antigenic variation caused a high fraction of nonpiliated bacteria but was not responsible for the reduced gene transfer at later stages. When selective pressure was applied to dense biofilms using antibiotics at their MIC, the double-resistant bacteria did not show a significant growth advantage. In loosely connected biofilms, the spreading of double-resistant clones was prominent. We conclude that multidrug resistance readily develops in early gonococcal biofilms through horizontal gene transfer. However, selection and spreading of the multiresistant clones are heavily suppressed in dense biofilms. IMPORTANCE: Biofilms are considered ideal reaction chambers for horizontal gene transfer and development of multidrug resistances. The rate at which genes are exchanged within biofilms is unknown. Here, we quantified the acquisition of double-drug resistance by gene transfer between gonococci with single resistances. At early biofilm stages, the transfer efficiency was higher than for planktonic cells but then decreased with biofilm age. The surface topography affected the architecture of the biofilm. While the efficiency of gene transfer was independent of the architecture, spreading of double-resistant bacteria under selective conditions was strongly enhanced in loose biofilms. We propose that while biofilms help generating multiresistant strains, selection takes place mostly after dispersal from the biofilm.

Three-dimensional obstacles for bacterial surface motility.

Twitching motility enables bacteria to move over surfaces using type IV pili as grappling hooks. Here it is shown that the motility of the round Neisseria gonorrhoeae as well as of rod-shaped Myxococcus xanthus is guided by elevations with dimension and depth corresponding to the size of the bacteria.

Phase and antigenic variation govern competition dynamics through positioning in bacterial colonies.

Cellular positioning towards the surface of bacterial colonies and biofilms can enhance dispersal, provide a selective advantage due to increased nutrient and space availability, or shield interior cells from external stresses. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms that govern bacterial positioning. Using the type IV pilus (T4P) of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, we tested the hypothesis that the processes of phase and antigenic variation govern positioning and thus enhance bacterial fitness in expanding gonococcal colonies. By independently tuning growth rate and T4P-mediated interaction forces, we show that the loss of T4P and the subsequent segregation to the front confers a strong selective advantage. Sequencing of the major pilin gene of the spatially segregated sub-populations and an investigation of the spatio-temporal population dynamics was carried out. Our findings indicate that pilin phase and antigenic variation generate a standing variation of pilin sequences within the inoculation zone, while variants associated with a non-piliated phenotype segregate to the front of the growing colony. We conclude that tuning of attractive forces by phase and antigenic variation is a powerful mechanism for governing the dynamics of bacterial colonies.

Differential interaction forces govern bacterial sorting in early biofilms.

Bacterial biofilms can generate micro-heterogeneity in terms of surface structures. However, little is known about the associated changes in the physics of cell-cell interaction and its impact on the architecture of biofilms. In this study, we used the type IV pilus of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to test whether variation of surface structures induces cell-sorting. We show that the rupture forces between pili are fine-tuned by post-translational modification. Bacterial sorting was dependent on pilus post-translational modification and pilus density. Active force generation was necessary for defined morphologies of mixed microcolonies. The observed morphotypes were in remarkable agreement with the differential strength of adhesion hypothesis proposing that a tug-of-war among surface structures of different cells governs cell sorting. We conclude that in early biofilms the density and rupture force of bacterial surface structures can trigger cell sorting based on similar physical principles as in developing embryos.

Speed switching of gonococcal surface motility correlates with proton motive force.

Bacterial type IV pili are essential for adhesion to surfaces, motility, microcolony formation, and horizontal gene transfer in many bacterial species. These polymers are strong molecular motors that can retract at two different speeds. In the human pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae speed switching of single pili from 2 µm/s to 1 µm/s can be triggered by oxygen depletion. Here, we address the question how proton motive force (PMF) influences motor speed. Using pHluorin expression in combination with dyes that are sensitive to transmembrane ΔpH gradient or transmembrane potential ΔΨ, we measured both components of the PMF at varying external pH. Depletion of PMF using uncouplers reversibly triggered switching into the low speed mode. Reduction of the PMF by ≈ 35 mV was enough to trigger speed switching. Reducing ATP levels by inhibition of the ATP synthase did not induce speed switching. Furthermore, we showed that the strictly aerobic Myxococcus xanthus failed to move upon depletion of PMF or oxygen, indicating that although the mechanical properties of the motor are conserved, its regulatory inputs have evolved differently. We conclude that depletion of PMF triggers speed switching of gonococcal pili. Although ATP is required for gonococcal pilus retraction, our data indicate that PMF is an independent additional energy source driving the high speed mode.