Metabolic factors, anthropometric measures, diet, and physical activity in long-term breast cancer survivors: change from diagnosis and comparison to non-breast cancer controls.

PURPOSE: We studied metabolic factors, diabetes, and anthropometric measurements at diagnosis and long-term follow-up (LTFU), mean 12.5 years post-diagnosis, in breast cancer (BC) survivors, and compared their status at LTFU to that of age-matched women without BC. Diet and physical activity were also assessed. METHOD: 535 non-diabetic BC patients treated at three University of Toronto hospitals were followed prospectively; 285 surviving patients, without distant recurrence, participated in a LTFU study. A control group of 167 age-matched women without BC was recruited from a mammogram screening program at one of the hospitals. Change over time was analyzed using paired t tests, and comparisons between BC survivors and controls used age and education (AE)-adjusted regression models. RESULTS: Median weight gain in BC survivors was 2.00 kg (p < 0.0001); BMI, glucose, insulin, homeostasis model assessment (HOMA), and total cholesterol increased modestly but significantly. Waist circumference, glucose, and triglycerides were higher in LTFU BC survivors versus controls. BC survivors had significantly greater prevalence of diabetes/pre-diabetes versus controls (33 vs. 20.4%, AE-adjusted odds ratio (OR) 1.59, p = 0.050). This effect was restricted to those with lower levels of physical activity (<56 metabolic equivalent (MET)-hours/week: OR 2.70 versus 0.94 for those with higher physical activity, interaction p = 0.034). At LTFU, BC survivors were more physically active than at diagnosis (median increase 28 MET-hours/week interquartile range -14.8 to 82), and compared to controls (median 68.2 vs. 44 MET-hours/week, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and diabetes/pre-diabetes was significantly higher in BC survivors than in controls group, notably in those with lower levels of physical activity. Enhanced diabetes/metabolic syndrome screening and promotion of physical activity may be warranted in BC survivors.

Effects of metformin versus placebo on vitamin B12 metabolism in non-diabetic breast cancer patients in CCTG MA.32.

BACKGROUND: Metformin is associated with low levels of vitamin B12 (VitB12) in patients with diabetes. The CCTG/MA.32 trial investigates the effects of metformin vs placebo on breast cancer (BC) outcomes in non-diabetic high-risk BC patients. We analyzed VitB12 at baseline and after 6 months of metformin (versus placebo) in the first 492 patients with paired blood samples. METHODS: VitB12 was analyzed centrally in baseline and 6-month fasting plasma. Levels <181 pmol/L were considered deficient, 181-221 pmol/L borderline, and ≥222 pmol/L sufficient. Methylmalonic acid (MMA) and homocysteine (HC) were assayed in those with VitB12 levels <222 pmol/L. Statistical analyses used Spearman's rank correlation coefficients and Wilcoxon signed-rank test for continuous variables and Chi-square test for categorical variables. RESULTS: 237 patients received metformin and 255 received placebo; median (inter quartile range) baseline VitB12 levels were 390 (290, 552) and 370 (290, 552) pmol/L in the metformin and placebo arms, respectively (p = 0.97). At 6 months, the median levels were 320 (244, 419) in the metformin versus 380 (286, 546) pmol/L in the placebo arm (p = 0.0001). At baseline, 15 patients (11 metformin and 4 placebo) had VitB12 <181 pmol/L, and at 6 months, 18 patients (15 metformin and 3 placebo) (p = 0.004). Median hemoglobin was similar at baseline, metformin, 130 g/L (124-137), and placebo arms, 131 g/L (124-137) (p = 0.38), and at 6 months, metformin, 131 g/L (91-162), and 131 g/L (106-169) in placebo group (p = 0.11). Of the 74 subjects with vitamin B12 <222 pmol/L at either time point (45 metformin, 29 placebo), at baseline MMA was normal in all patients and two had elevated HC (>15µmol/L). At 6 months, one patient (metformin) had MMA >0.4µmol/L and 3 (2 metformin, 1 placebo) had HC > 15µmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: There was an increased rate of biochemical VitB12 deficiency after 6 months of metformin; this was not associated with anemia. Further research will investigate VitB12 levels in all subjects at baseline and at 6 and 60 months.

Prognostic associations of 25 hydroxy vitamin D in NCIC CTG MA.21, a phase III adjuvant randomized clinical trial of three chemotherapy regimens in high-risk breast cancer.

Low vitamin D levels have been associated with poor breast cancer outcomes in observational studies. We examined the association of vitamin D blood levels with relapse-free survival (RFS), breast cancer-specific survival (BCSS), and overall survival (OS) in the MA.21 randomized clinical trial. Fasting blood was collected pre-chemotherapy in 934/2104 (44.4 %) of subjects; 25 hydroxy vitamin D was measured (radioimmunoassay, Diasorin) in one batch. Vitamin D was assessed as a transformed continuous factor, and categorically (quartiles and clinical classifications). Univariate and multivariate prognostic analyses (adjusted for treatment, stratification factors, and baseline imbalances) were performed using Cox models. Most patients were young (median 47.8 years), white (91.6 %) and premenopausal (69.4 %) with grade III (52 %), HER2 negative or missing (89.5 %), ER positive (61.9 %), T1-2 (89.4 %), N + (72.7 %) breast cancer. Compared to the full population, those with vitamin D levels were more likely to be white, PS 1 or 2, to have undergone mastectomy, and to have an ER + tumor. Mean vitamin D was 69.7 nmol/L (27.9 ng/ml) and did not vary by tumor subtype. The majority (80.5 %) had levels >50 nmol/L (20 ng/ml), considered adequate by Institute of Medicine. Continuous vitamin D was not multivariately associated with RFS, BCSS, or OS (p = 0.36, 0.26, 0.33, respectively); categorical vitamin D was also not associated with outcome. Vitamin D associations with RFS did not differ within ER/HER2 subgroups. There was no evidence that vitamin D blood level was associated with RFS, BCSS, and OS in MA.21; the majority of subjects had adequate vitamin D levels at study entry.

Adjuvant carboplatin and paclitaxel with "sandwich" method radiotherapy for stage III or IV endometrial cancer: long-term follow-up at a single-institution.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) associated with adjuvant carboplatin and paclitaxel chemotherapy interposed with radiation for advanced endometrial cancer. METHODS: This is a cohort study of adult women with stage III or IV endometrial cancer treated at a single institution, between April 2002 and October 2017. Tumor and treatment characteristics were recorded. Treatment consisted of 4 cycles of intravenous paclitaxel and carboplatin every 3 weeks, followed by external beam radiotherapy to the pelvis (45-50 Gy), and another 2 cycles of chemotherapy. One cohort of patients were prospectively enrolled from 2002 through 2006 and an additional cohort from 2007 to 2017, which was retrospectively analyzed. Primary endpoints for this study were DFS and OS rates which were calculated using Cox regression models. RESULTS: Eighty-two patients with a median age of 66.5 years (range, 35-83 years) were included. Median follow-up was 46 months (range, 9-196 months). Most patients had stage IIIC disease (62.2%) and serous carcinoma histology (46.3%). Median OS was 146 months and median DFS was 71 months. A 5-year OS and DFS were 64.9% and 55.7%, respectively. Age >60 years subgroup was at a significantly higher risk of DFS event or death. Histological subtype, location of positive nodes, and cancer stage (IIIa vs. higher stage) did not correlate to a higher risk of recurrence or death. CONCLUSION: Long term follow-up and a larger population confirm that the chemoradiotherapy sandwich method yields favorable outcomes in patients with high-risk endometrial cancer.

The Omission of Anthracycline Chemotherapy in Women with Early HER2-Negative Breast Cancer-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Anthracycline-taxane is the standard chemotherapy strategy for treating high-risk early breast cancer despite the potentially life-threatening adverse events caused by anthracyclines. Commonly, the combination of docetaxel and cyclophosphamide (TC) is considered an alternative option. However, the efficacy of TC compared to anthracycline-taxane chemotherapy is unclear. This study compares disease-free survival (DFS), overall survival (OS) and cardiotoxicity between adjuvant TC and anthracycline-taxane for stages I-III, HER2-negative breast cancer. METHODS: A systematic search on MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane CENTRAL for randomized-controlled trials published until 11 March 2024, yielded 203 studies with 11,803 patients, and seven trials were included. RESULTS: TC results in little to no difference in DFS (HR 1.09, 95% CI 0.98-1.20; moderate-certainty of evidence); OS (1.02, 95% CI 0.89-1.16; high-certainty of evidence); and cardiotoxicity (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.16-1.76; high-certainty of evidence), compared to anthracycline-taxane. In the subgroup analysis, patients with ≥4 lymph nodes had improved DFS from anthracycline-taxane over TC. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, there was no difference between TC and anthracycline-taxane in DFS, OS and cardiotoxicity. In women with ≥4 nodes, anthracycline-taxane was associated with a substantial reduction in relapse events, compared to TC. Our study supports the current standard of practice, which is to use anthracycline-taxane and TC chemotherapy as a reasonable option in select cases.

Antibody-Drug Conjugates in Breast Cancer: Ascent to Destiny and Beyond-A 2023 Review.

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are revolutionizing cancer treatment, adding another important new class of systemic therapy. ADCs are a specially designed class of therapeutics that target cells expressing specific cancer antigens using directed antibody-drug delivery and release a cytotoxic chemotherapeutic payload. Over the past two decades, improvements in ADC design, development, and research, particularly in breast cancer, have led to several recent landmark publications. These advances have significantly changed various treatment paradigms and revamped traditional classifications of breast cancer with the introduction of a potential new subtype: "HER2-low". This review will focus on several ADCs developed for breast cancer treatment, including trastuzumab emtansine (T-DM1), trastuzumab deruxtecan (T-DXd), sacituzumab govitecan (SG) and other newer emerging agents. It will provide an overview of the role of ADCs in breast cancer and discuss the opportunities and challenges they present. Additionally, our review will discuss future research directions to improve the selection of targets, combination therapies, and aim to improve drug safety. Important first-line metastatic and adjuvant clinical trials are underway, which may expand the role of ADC therapy in breast cancer. We foresee ADCs driving a new era of breast cancer treatment, adding to the steady incremental survival advantage observed in recent years.

Body composition and endometrial cancer outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Obesity is a known risk factor for developing endometrial cancer. However, the association of obesity with endometrial cancer (EC) outcomes has not been clearly established. This study examined how outcomes in women with early stage EC vary with body composition measured via computed tomography (CT). METHODS: In this retrospective study, patients diagnosed with EC international Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stages I-III and available CT scans were included. Automatica software was used to assess the areas of visceral adipose tissue, subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), and intermuscular adipose tissue (IMAT) and skeletal muscle area. RESULTS: Of 293 patient charts assessed, 199 met eligibility criteria. Median body mass index (BMI) was 32.8 kg/m2 (interquartile range [IQ] = 26.8-38.9); 61.8% had histologic subtype endometrioid carcinoma. Adjusted for age, international Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage, and histologic subtype, a BMI of at least 30 vs less than 30 kg/m2 was associated with lower endometrial cancer-specific survival (ECSS) (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.27 to 4.25) and overall survival (OS) (HR = 2.7, 95% CI = 1.35 to 5.39). Higher IMAT 75th vs 25th percentile and SAT of at least 225.6 vs less than 225.6 cm2 were associated with lower ECSS (HR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.1 to 2.13, and HR = 2.57, 95% CI = 1.13 to 5.88) and OS (HR = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.11 to 2.02, and HR = 2.46, 95% CI = 1.2 to 5.01), respectively. The association of visceral adipose tissue (75th vs 25th percentile) with ECSS and OS was not statistically significant (HR = 1.42, 95% CI = 0.91 to 2.22, and HR = 1.24, 95% CI = 0.81 to 1.89). CONCLUSION: Higher BMI, IMAT, and SAT were associated with higher mortality from EC and lower OS. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying these relationships could inform strategies to improve patient outcomes.

Imaging modalities for measuring body composition in patients with cancer: opportunities and challenges.

Body composition assessment (ie, the measurement of muscle and adiposity) impacts several cancer-related outcomes including treatment-related toxicities, treatment responses, complications, and prognosis. Traditional modalities for body composition measurement include body mass index, body circumference, skinfold thickness, and bioelectrical impedance analysis; advanced imaging modalities include dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. Each modality has its advantages and disadvantages, thus requiring an individualized approach in identifying the most appropriate measure for specific clinical or research situations. Advancements in imaging approaches have led to an abundance of available data, however, the lack of standardized thresholds for classification of abnormal muscle mass or adiposity has been a barrier to adopting these measurements widely in research and clinical care. In this review, we discuss the different modalities in detail and provide guidance on their unique opportunities and challenges.

Patients with metastatic breast cancer using bevacizumab as a treatment: is there still a role for it?

OPINION STATEMENT: Over the last few decades, the angiogenesis mechanism has increasingly been studied and implicated in cancer pathophysiology. At present, it is known that angiogenesis plays a relevant role in tumor growth, and more importantly many new molecules exists can potentially interfere with this process. Bevacizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) now commonly used in the treatment of colorectal, renal cell, and brain cancer, is the first anti-angiogenesis drug delivered in combination with chemotherapy that has consistently shown clinical efficacy in the treatment of breast cancer. Since the ECOG 2100 trial has shown that bevacizumab added to paclitaxel as a first-line treatment for advanced breast cancer nearly doubled the time to progression and tumor response rate, its approval was granted almost worldwide. However, other phase III trials revealed a smaller absolute improvement in progression-free survival (PFS) and response rates, and no trials yet have demonstrated survival enhancement which led to a great controversy and debate over the use of bevacizumab. The discrepancy between PFS and overall survival also raises the question of whether or not bevacizumab has been applied sub-optimally in some of the studies, if a predictive biomarker(s) exists to select the group of patients whom would receive the greatest benefit and what is the appropriate clinical end-point for approval and funding of new targeted agents. In this article we will review the bevacizumab mechanism of action and the clinical trials that assessed its benefit in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer (MBC).

The Futility of Futility Analyses in Adjuvant Trials in Hormone Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer.

An interim analysis is commonly used in phase III superiority trials to compare treatment arms, with the goal of terminating exposure of patients to ineffective or unsafe drugs or to identify highly effective therapies for earlier public disclosure. Traditionally, interim analyses have been designed to identify early evidence of extremely large benefit of the experimental approach, potentially leading to early dissemination of effective treatments. Increasingly, interim analysis has also involved analysis of futility, which may lead to early termination of a trial that will not yield additional useful information. This presents an important challenge in early stage hormone receptor-positive breast cancer, where recurrence often occurs late, with a steady annual event rate up to 20 years. Early analysis of events may miss late treatment effects that can be observed only with longer follow-up. We discuss approaches to futility analysis in adjuvant clinical trials in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer, the role of the Data Safety Monitoring Committee in such analyses, considerations of the potential harms vs benefits of treatment, and the risks of continuing vs early termination of a trial.

Radiotherapy and radiosensitization in breast cancer: Molecular targets and clinical applications.

Relatively poor survival outcomes are observed in advanced or metastatic breast cancer, where local control of the primary or metastatic disease may be achieved by surgical resection, local ablative and radiation therapies. Radioresistance, poses a major challenge in achieving durable oncologic outcomes, mandating development of novel management strategies. Although multimodality approaches that combine radiotherapy with chemotherapy, or systemic agents, are utilized for radiosensitization and treatment of various malignancies, this approach has not yet found its clinical application in breast cancer. Some agents for breast cancer treatment can serve as radiosensitizers, creating an opportunity to enhance effects of radiation while providing systemic disease control. Hence, combination of radiotherapy with radiosensitizing agents have the potential to improve oncologic outcomes in advanced or metastatic breast cancer. This review discusses molecular targets for radiosensitization and novel systemic agents that have potential for clinical use as radiosensitizers in breast cancer.

Association of Obesity With Breast Cancer Outcome in Relation to Cancer Subtypes: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Obesity at breast cancer (BC) diagnosis has been associated with poor outcome, although the magnitude of effect in different BC subtypes is uncertain. We report on the association of obesity or overweight at diagnosis of nonmetastatic BC with disease-free (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in the following defined subtypes: hormone receptor positive/HER2 negative (HR+HER2-), HER2 positive (HER2+), and triple negative (TNBC). METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, and COCHRANE databases up to January 1, 2019. Study eligibility was performed independently by 2 authors. Studies reporting hazard ratios (HRs) of OS and/or DFS for obesity or overweight in BC subtypes were included. The pooled hazard ratio was computed and weighted using generic inverse variance and random effects models. RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies were included. Obese compared with nonobese women had worse DFS in all subtypes: the hazard ratios were 1.26 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13 to 1.41, P < .001) for HR+HER2- BC, 1.16 (95% CI = 1.06 to 1.26, P < .001) for HER2+ BC, and 1.17 (95% CI = 1.06 to 1.29, P = .001) for TNBC. OS was also worse in obese vs nonobese women (HR+HER2- BC HR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.20 to 1.62, P < .001; HER2+ BC HR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.33, P = .006; and TNBC HR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.13 to 1.53, P < .001). As opposed to obesity, overweight was not associated with either DFS or OS in HER2+ BC (HR = 1.02, 95% CI = 0.81 to 1.28, P = .85; and HR = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.76 to 1.21, P = .99, respectively) or TNBC (HR = 1.04, 95% CI = 0.93 to 1.18, P = .49; and HR = 1.08, 95% CI = 0.81 to 1.44, P = .17), respectively. In HR+HER2- BC, being overweight was associated with worse OS (HR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.07 to 1.22, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Obesity was associated with modestly worse DFS and OS in all BC subtypes.

The Effect of Metformin vs Placebo on Sex Hormones in Canadian Cancer Trials Group MA.32.

BACKGROUND: Metformin has been associated with lower breast cancer (BC) risk and improved outcomes in observational studies. Multiple biologic mechanisms have been proposed, including a recent report of altered sex hormones. We evaluated the effect of metformin on sex hormones in MA.32, a phase III trial of nondiabetic BC subjects who were randomly assigned to metformin or placebo. METHODS: We studied the subgroup of postmenopausal hormone receptor-negative BC subjects not receiving endocrine treatment who provided fasting blood at baseline and at 6 months after being randomly assigned. Sex hormone-binding globulin, bioavailable testosterone, and estradiol levels were assayed using electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Change from baseline to 6 months between study arms was compared using Wilcoxon sum rank tests and regression models. RESULTS: 312 women were eligible (141 metformin vs 171 placebo); the majority of subjects in each arm had T1/2, N0, HER2-negative BC and had received (neo)adjuvant chemotherapy. Mean age was 58.1 (SD=6.9) vs 57.5 (SD=7.9) years, mean body mass index (BMI) was 27.3 (SD=5.5) vs 28.9 (SD=6.4) kg/m2 for metformin vs placebo, respectively. Median estradiol decreased between baseline and 6 months on metformin vs placebo (-5.7 vs 0 pmol/L; P < .001) in univariable analysis and after controlling for baseline BMI and BMI change (P < .001). There was no change in sex hormone-binding globulin or bioavailable testosterone. CONCLUSION: Metformin lowered estradiol levels, independent of BMI. This observation suggests a new metformin effect that has potential relevance to estrogen sensitive cancers.

Changes in weight, physical and psychosocial patient-reported outcomes among obese women receiving treatment for early-stage breast cancer: A nationwide clinical study.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on how weight loss correlates to health-related quality-of-life (HRQOL) among obese breast cancer (BC) patients is limited. We aimed to evaluate associations between weight changes and HRQOL. METHODS: We included 993 obese women with stage I-II-III BC from CANTO, a multicenter, prospective cohort collecting longitudinal, objectively-assessed anthropometric measures and HRQOL data (NCT01993498). Associations between weight changes (±5% between diagnosis and post-treatment [shortly after completion of surgery, adjuvant chemo- or radiation-therapy]) and patient-reported HRQOL (EORTC QLQ-C30/B23) were comprehensively evaluated. Changes in HRQOL and odds of severely impaired HRQOL were assessed using multivariable generalized estimating equations and logistic regression, respectively. RESULTS: 14.1% women gained weight, 67.3% remained stable and 18.6% lost weight. Significant decreases in functional status and exacerbation of symptoms were observed overall post-treatment. Compared to gaining weight or remaining stable, obese women who lost weight experienced less of a decline in HRQOL, reporting better physical function (mean change [95%CI] for gain, stability and loss: -12.9 [-16.5,-9.3], -6.9 [-8.2,-5.5] and -6.2 [-8.7,-3.7]; pinteraction[weight-change-by-time] = 0.006), less dyspnea (+18.9 [+12.3,+25.6], +9.2 [+6.5,+11.9] and +3.2 [-1.0,+7.3]; pinteraction = 0.0003), and fewer breast symptoms (+22.1 [+16.8,+27.3], +18.0 [+15.7,+20.3] and +13.4 [+9.0,+17.2]; pinteraction = 0.044). Weight loss was also significantly associated with reduced odds of severe pain compared with weight gain (OR [95%CI] = 0.51 [0.31-0.86], p = 0.011) or stability (OR [95%CI] = 0.62 [0.41-0.95], p = 0.029). No associations between weight loss and worsening of other physical or psychosocial parameters were found. CONCLUSIONS: This large contemporary study suggests that weight loss among obese BC patients during early survivorship was associated with better patient-reported outcomes, without evidence of worsened functionality or symptomatology in any domain of HRQOL.

A phase II randomized clinical trial of the effect of metformin versus placebo on progression-free survival in women with metastatic breast cancer receiving standard chemotherapy.

OBJECTIVES: Pre-clinical data suggest metformin might enhance the effect of chemotherapy in breast cancer (BC). We conducted a Phase II randomized trial of chemotherapy plus metformin versus placebo in metastatic breast cancer (MBC). MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this double blind phase II trial we randomly assigned non-diabetic MBC patients on 1st to 4th line chemotherapy to receive metformin 850 mg po bid or placebo bid. Primary outcome was progression-free survival (PFS); secondary outcomes included overall survival (OS), response rate (RR), toxicity and quality of life (QOL). With 40 subjects and a type-one error of 0.2 (one-sided), a PFS hazard ratio (HR) of 0.58 could be detected with 80% power. RESULTS: 40 patients were randomized (22 metformin, 18 placebo) with a mean age of 55 vs 57 years and ER/PR positive BC in 86.4% vs 83.3% off metformin vs placebo, respectively. Mean BMI was 27kg/m2 in both arms. The majority of patients were on 1st line chemotherapy. Grade 3-4 toxicity occurred in 31.8% (metformin) vs 58.8% (placebo). Best response: Partial response 18.2% metformin vs 25% placebo, stable disease 36.4% metformin vs 18.8% placebo, progressive disease 45.4% metformin vs 56.2% placebo. Mean PFS was 5.4 vs 6.3 months (metformin vs placebo), HR 1.2 (95% CI 0.63-2.31). Mean OS was 20.2 (metformin) vs 24.2 months (placebo), HR 1.68 (95% CI 0.79-3.55). CONCLUSION: In this population metformin showed no significant effect on RR, PFS or OS. These results do not support the use of metformin with chemotherapy in non-diabetic MBC patients.

Toronto Workshop on Late Recurrence in Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer: Part 2: Approaches to Predict and Identify Late Recurrence, Research Directions.

Late disease recurrence (more than 5 years after initial diagnosis) represents a clinical challenge in the treatment and management of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer (BC). An international workshop was convened in Toronto, Canada, in February 2018 to review the current understanding of late recurrence and to identify critical issues that require future study. The underlying biological causes of late recurrence are complex, with the processes governing cancer cell dormancy, including immunosurveillance, cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and cellular stemness, being integral to disease progression. These critical processes are described herein as well as their role in influencing risk of recurrence. Moreover, observational and interventional clinical trials are proposed, with a focus on methods to identify patients at risk of recurrence and possible strategies to combat this in patients with estrogen receptor-positive BC. Because the problem of late BC recurrence of great importance, recent advances in disease detection and patient monitoring should be incorporated into novel clinical trials to evaluate approaches to enhance patient management. Indeed, future research on these issues is planned and will offer new options for effective late recurrence treatment and prevention strategies.

Toronto Workshop on Late Recurrence in Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer: Part 1: Late Recurrence: Current Understanding, Clinical Considerations.

Disease recurrence (locoregional, distant) exerts a significant clinical impact on the survival of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer patients. Many of these recurrences occur late, more than 5 years after original diagnosis, and represent a major obstacle to the effective treatment of this disease. Indeed, methods to identify patients at risk of late recurrence and therapeutic strategies designed to avert or treat these recurrences are lacking. Therefore, an international workshop was convened in Toronto, Canada, in February 2018 to review the current understanding of late recurrence and to identify critical issues that require future study. In this article, the major issues surrounding late recurrence are defined and current approaches that may be applicable to this challenge are discussed. Specifically, diagnostic tests with potential utility in late-recurrence prediction are described as well as a variety of patient-related factors that may influence recurrence risk. Clinical and therapeutic approaches are also reviewed, with a focus on patient surveillance and the implementation of extended endocrine therapy in the context of late-recurrence prevention. Understanding and treating late recurrence in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer is a major unmet clinical need. A concerted effort of basic and clinical research is required to confront late recurrence and improve disease management and patient survival.

Association of Metabolic, Inflammatory, and Tumor Markers With Circulating Tumor Cells in Metastatic Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are associated with worse prognosis in metastatic breast cancer (BC). We evaluated the association of metabolic, inflammatory, and tumor markers with CTCs in women with metastatic BC before commencing a new systemic therapy. METHODS: Ninety-six patients with newly diagnosed or progressing metastatic BC without current diabetes or use of anti-inflammatory agents were recruited from four Ontario hospitals. Women provided fasting blood for measurement of metabolic, inflammatory, and tumor markers and CTCs. CTCs were assayed within 72 hours of collection using CellSearch. Other blood was frozen at -80°C, and assays were performed in a single batch. Associations between CTC counts with study factors were evaluated using Spearman correlation, and the chi-square or Fisher exact test. All statistical tests were two-sided and P value ≤ .05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The median age was 60.5 years; 90.6% were postmenopausal. The cohort included hormone receptor-positive (87.5%), HER2-positive (15.6%), and triple-negative (10.4%) BCs. Patients were starting firstline (35.5%), second-line (26.0%), or third-or-later-line therapy (38.5%). CTC counts (per 7.5 mL of blood) ranged from 0 to 1238 (median 2); an elevated CTC count, defined as five or more CTCs, was detected in 42 (43.8%) patients. Those with liver metastases (vs not) more frequently had an elevated CTC count (59.0% vs 33.3%, P = .02). CTCs were significantly associated with C-reactive protein (R = .22, P = .02), interleukin (IL)-6 (R = .25, P = .01), IL-8 (R = .38, P = .0001), plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (R = .31, P = .001), carcinoembryonic antigen (R = .31, P = .002), and cancer antigen 15-3 (R = .40, P = .0001) and inversely associated with body mass index (R = -.23, P = .02) and leptin (R = -.26, P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: CTC counts were positively associated with tumor and inflammatory markers and inversely associated with some metabolic markers, potentially reflecting tumor burden and cachexia.

Association of Obesity-Related Metabolic Disruptions With Cancer Risk and Outcome.

Over the past 40 years, the prevalence of obesity has increased epidemically worldwide, which raises significant concerns regarding public health and the associated economic burden. Obesity is a major risk factor for several conditions including cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, and recent evidence suggests that obesity negatively affects cancer risk and outcome. The relationship between obesity and cancer is complex and involves multiple factors both at the systemic and cellular level. Indeed, disruptions in insulin metabolism, adipokines, inflammation, and sex hormones all contribute to the adverse effects of obesity in cancer development and progression. The focus of this review will be the impact of these systemic obesity-related factors on cancer biology, incidence, and outcome. Potential therapeutic interventions and current clinical trials targeting obesity and its associated factors will also be discussed.