Using the Five Domains Model to develop welfare assessment guidelines for Thoroughbred horses in New Zealand.

This review outlines the processes followed by New Zealand Thoroughbred Racing (NZTR) when developing its Thoroughbred Welfare Assessment Guidelines. It accepted that guidance on welfare management must be based on up-to-date knowledge of how animal welfare is understood scientifically. NZTR established an expert panel to facilitate this process. First, major changes in animal welfare science thinking over the last 40 years were considered. For example, the separate biological function and affective state orientations were later accepted as dynamically interacting elements within the body operating as an integrated whole entity; conceptual problems with the Five Freedoms framework led to the formulation of the Five Provisions and Welfare Aims paradigm and development of the Five Domains Model for assessing nutritional, environmental, health, behavioural and mental facets of animal welfare; and the initial major focus on negative experiences evolved to include both negative and positive experiences. The Five Domains Model was very effective for illustrating up-to-date understanding of animal welfare and its use demonstrated how comprehensive animal welfare assessments may be conducted. The NZTR panel followed a sequential approach that included an update on animal welfare thinking and the Five Provisions and Welfare Aims paradigm; the generic Five Domains Model was refocused specifically on equids; a detailed model assessment of equine welfare practices was conducted; enhanced equine welfare practices were emphasised by comparing them to inadequate welfare practices; guidelines were framed in terms which provide domain-specific advice on provisions that achieve positive welfare; other domain-specific guidelines were focused on welfare-compromising consequences of inadequate provisions; and welfare-appropriate conditions were clarified for all stages of a Thoroughbred's life cycle (in work and rest) to facilitate exercising a life-long duty of care. Finally, the guidelines were expressed in general terms to avoid them becoming overly detailed and unwieldy. They therefore do not address specific welfare issues such as use of whips, bits, spurs and tight nosebands, however the Five Domains Model may also be used for these specific purposes. The guidelines, and the way they were formulated, provide an example of one approach which other organisations may find immediately useful, or which may stimulate them to devise their own approaches when progressing such equine welfare initiatives.

Potential benefit of a thoracic squeeze technique in two newborn calves delivered by caesarean section.

Case History: Two calves delivered following elective caesarean section showed behaviour typical of neonatal maladjustment syndrome described in foals, i.e., indifference to environmental stimuli, lack of affinity for the dam, failure to find the udder, refusal to suck, aimless wandering or motionless standing. Calves were subjected to a clinical examination immediate after delivery and there were no signs of defects, illness, pain, dehydration, hypoxia, acidaemia or other causes for the unresponsive behaviour.Clinical Findings and Treatment: Both calves were subjected to the thoracic squeeze technique, one at 6 hours and the other at 20 hours after delivery. A soft rope was looped around the thorax and gentle pressure was applied to the free end of the rope, squeezing the calf's chest for 20 minutes. Both calves exhibited a sleep-like state manifested by closed eyes, no body movements, slow breathing and a decrease in heart rate, for the entire squeezing period. When the rope was removed the calves woke up immediately, rose and walked towards the dam. When led to the dam's udder, the weaker calf began to suck. Both were reported, by the stockperson, to follow the dam and suck normally the following day.Clinical Relevance: Provided all other disease processes are excluded, very young calves that exhibit indifference to environmental stimuli and lack of affinity for the dam may be good candidates for application of the thoracic squeeze technique that has been demonstrated to have clinical efficacy in foals with neonatal maladjustment syndrome.

Development of animal welfare understanding drives change in minimum welfare standards.

The process by which societies adapt to increasing knowledge about the mental and physical capacities of animals and the ways in which they are affected by human activities has been described as a journey. Different countries and regions are at various stages of this journey, and will take a unique path, depending on their specific social and cultural dynamics. However, all participants are unified by an increasing awareness of, and concern for, animal welfare. This journey has been characterised by a number of landmark events, one of which was the release of the Five Freedoms concept. Although aspirational and abstract, as it did not outline specific practical goals, nonetheless this concept became a catalyst for moving animal welfare thinking in a new direction, and set up a number of important targets for research. This eventually led to a key shift in thinking from a focus on biological functioning and resources, to ways of assessing welfare outcomes in terms of animals' experiences, i.e. their affective states. Behaviour science played an important role in the interpretation of animals' affective experiences, receiving compelling support from parallel studies in affective neuroscience. An important aspect of our understanding of animal welfare is that affective states can be negative or positive. Enabling animals to perform specific behaviours at key times when they are needed is central to the achievement of positive affective states. Another important event has been the development of practical ways to shift the spectrum of affective states towards a positive balance and their incorporation into welfare codes and regulations. The recent focus on positive affective states does not mean that negative experiences should be given less attention. In fact, in those countries that are at the early stages of the journey, improving function and productivity may be the most effective way to promote some important aspects of animal welfare. For example, alleviating pain is a useful entry point. Finally, it is important that the pace of the journey, in terms of public awareness and shifts in understanding, be supported by high-quality science that is rigorously assessed and validated in its practical application to the management of animal welfare.

Developing a framework for risk-based surveillance of tuberculosis in cattle: a case study of its application in Scotland.

Due to its substantially lower prevalence of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) relative to other areas of Great Britain, Scotland was designated as an officially (bovine) TB-free region in 2009. This paper investigates resultant possibilities for reducing surveillance by developing risk-based alternatives to current 4-year testing of eligible herds. A model of freedom of infection was used to develop strategies that specifically tested herds that are at risk of infection but would probably not be identified by slaughterhouse meat inspection. The performance of current testing is mimicked by testing all herds that slaughter fewer than 25% of their total stock per year and regularly import animals from high-incidence areas of England and Wales or from Ireland. This system offers a cost reduction by requiring 25% fewer herd and animal tests and 25% fewer false positives.

From phenotype to genotype: a Bayesian solution.

The study of biological systems commonly depends on inferring the state of a 'hidden' variable, such as an underlying genotype, from that of an 'observed' variable, such as an expressed phenotype. However, this cannot be achieved using traditional quantitative methods when more than one genetic mechanism exists for a single observable phenotype. Using a novel latent class Bayesian model, it is possible to infer the prevalence of different genetic elements in a population given a sample of phenotypes. As an exemplar, data comprising phenotypic resistance to six antimicrobials obtained from passive surveillance of Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 are analysed to infer the prevalence of individual resistance genes, as well as the prevalence of a genomic island known as SGI1 and its variants. Three competing models are fitted to the data and distinguished between using posterior predictive p-values to assess their ability to predict the observed number of unique phenotypes. The results suggest that several SGI1 variants circulate in a few fixed forms through the population from which our data were derived. The methods presented could be applied to other types of phenotypic data, and represent a useful and generic mechanism of inferring the genetic population structure of organisms.

Associations between the presence of virulence determinants and the epidemiology and ecology of zoonotic Escherichia coli.

The severity of human infection with pathogenic Escherichia coli depends on two major virulence determinants (eae and stx) that, respectively, produce intimin and Shiga toxin. In cattle, both may enhance colonization, but whether this increases fitness by enhancing cattle-to-cattle transmission in the field is unknown. In E. coli O157, the almost uniform presence of the virulence determinants in cattle isolates prevents comparative analysis. The availability to this study of extensive non-O157 E. coli data, with much greater diversity in carriage of virulence determinants, provides the opportunity to gain insight into their potential impact on transmission. Dynamic models were used to simulate expected prevalence distributions for serogroups O26 and O103. Transmission parameters were estimated by fitting model outputs to prevalence data from Scottish cattle using a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach. Despite similar prevalence distributions for O26 and O103, their transmission dynamics were distinct. Serogroup O26 strains appear well adapted to the cattle host. The dynamics are characterized by a basic reproduction ratio (R(0)) of >1 (allowing sustained cattle-to-cattle transmission), a relatively low transmission rate from environmental reservoirs, and substantial association with eae on transmission. The presence of stx(2) was associated with reduced transmission. In contrast, serogroup O103 appears better adapted to the noncattle environment, characterized by an R(0) value of <1 for plausible test sensitivities, a significantly higher transmission rate from noncattle sources than serogroup O26, and an absence of fitness benefits associated with the carriage of eae. Thus, the association of eae with enhanced transmission depends on the E. coli serogroup. Our results suggest that the capacity of E. coli strains to derive fitness benefits from virulence determinants influences the prevalence in the cattle population and the ecology and epidemiology of the host organism.

The implementation of animal welfare standards by Member Countries of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE): analysis of an OIE questionnaire.

A questionnaire on the status of animal welfare legislation and its implementation was distributed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) to 172 Member Countries in 2008. Overall, 45% of questionnaires were returned. The response rate varied from 25% in Africa to 69% in Europe. Eighty-seven percent of respondent countries indicated that there was a competent national veterinary authority for animal welfare legislation in their country. In many countries, the authority responsible for the operational implementation of animal welfare legislation appears to be the same as the authority responsible for creating the legislation. Forty-nine (66%) respondents identified a veterinary authority as being responsible for the implementation of animal welfare legislation at a state or provincial level. Most respondent countries indicated that they had legislation covering animal transport (83%), the slaughter of animals for human consumption (91%), the killing of animals for disease control (86%) and dog control (61%). Training courses on animal welfare were available for official veterinarians, private veterinarians, producers and processors in 73%, 44%, 57% and 51% of respondent countries, respectively. Eighty-two percent of respondent countries exported live animals to other countries and 56% of respondent countries indicated that personnel handling animals during transport were aware of OIE standards on animal welfare or other standards. Many European countries require transporters to be trained and certified according to European Union regulations. It was mandatory to stun livestock prior to slaughter in 31% of countries, but in 57% religious exceptions were allowed, and in 8% stunning was not mandatory. The most commonly used method of stunning was mechanical but electrical stunning was also common. It was mandatory to stun livestock prior to killing for disease control in 44% of countries but it was not mandatory in 43%. There was legislation on humane killing in 74% of countries, but in 25% of countries there was no such legislation. The national veterinary authority was responsible for these regulations in most (71%) respondent countries. In 73% of respondent countries the personnel who conducted killing for disease control were generally aware of the domestic legislation for animal welfare. Of all the problems considered, the problem of stray dog management was ranked as 'major' or 'severe' more often than any of the other issues. Killing for disease control was mentioned as a problem by one respondent, but only if services were overwhelmed. In the animal transport section of the questionnaire, long-distance transport was the major issue. Many respondents had no problems with any of these issues.

Serum cardiac troponin I concentrations in cattle with cardiac and noncardiac disorders.

BACKGROUND: Making a clinical diagnosis of pericarditis in cattle is difficult and additional diagnostic tests are needed to evaluate cattle with suspected pericarditis. Serum cardiac troponin I (cTnI) concentrations are increased in cattle with pericarditis, but the utility of measuring serum cTnI concentrations in cattle with suspected pericarditis in cattle remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To determine if serum cTnI concentrations in cattle can be used to differentiate pericarditis from other cardiac disorders and noncardiac thoracic diseases. ANIMALS: Seventy-seven clinically diseased cattle and 19 healthy control cattle. METHODS: Serum cTnI concentrations were measured using an Immunlite Troponin I immunometric chemiluminescent assay in consecutive cases of postmortem-confirmed pericarditis (n=18), endocarditis (n=15), chronic suppurative pneumonia (n=13), congenital heart disease (n=10), reticulitis (n=3), mediastinal abscess (n=7), thymic lymphoma (n=6), and caudal vena cava thrombosis (n=5). Serum cTnI concentrations were measured in 19 healthy cattle. RESULTS: Although serum cTnI concentrations were significantly higher in cattle with pericarditis compared with healthy cattle, they were not significantly different from concentrations in cattle with endocarditis, congenital cardiac disease, mediastinal abscess, reticulitis, caudal vena cava thrombosis, or chronic suppurative pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: Serum cTnI cannot be used to distinguish cattle with pericarditis from cattle with other primary cardiac diseases. In addition, serum cTnI concentrations cannot distinguish between cattle with primary cardiac diseases and those with other noncardiac, intrathoracic disorders.

Electroencephalographic responses to tail clamping in anaesthetized rat pups.

We investigated electroencephalographic (EEG) responses to tail clamping in lightly anaesthetized rat pups (5-22 days) in order to determine the ontogeny of EEG activity and at what age they may be capable of experiencing pain. Median frequency (F50) and spectral edge frequency (F95) of the power spectrum in the range of 1-30 Hz were determined before and after the application of a noxious stimulus and power spectra were compared by multivariate analysis. There was a postnatal increase in EEG power as, before clamping, pups aged 5-7 days exhibited isoelectric traces, whereas those aged 12-14 days and 21-22 days had intermittent EEG activity where the power in all frequencies was significantly lower at the former than at the latter age. Pups aged 5-7 days exhibited no EEG response to clamping in view of their isoelectric traces. Pups aged 12-14 days showed a significant decrease in F95 (P=0.002), whereas those aged 21-22 days showed highly significant reduction in F50 and F95 (P=0.028 and P<0.001, respectively) as well as changes in EEG power of specific frequencies after clamping. The results and related literature suggest that rat pups aged 5-7 days and younger are not likely to perceive pain and that the ability to perceive pain develops gradually between postnatal ages 12-14 days and 21-22 days.

Assessing techniques for disinfecting sites for inserting intravenous catheters into the jugular veins of horses.

The sites of insertion of catheters into the jugular veins of six horses were investigated to determine common isolates and to assess the effectiveness of two disinfection protocols with the hair coat left long, clipped or shaved. Skin commensals (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Micrococcus species) and environmental contaminants (Bacillus, Enterobacteriaceae, Aspergillus and Mucor species) were the microorganisms most frequently isolated. Chlorhexidine gluconate and povidone-iodine-based skin disinfection protocols resulted in significant reductions in the number of bacterial isolates from clipped sites. With chlorhexidine, there were no significant differences between the reductions observed at sites with the hair coat left long, clipped or shaved.

Assessment of subclinical venous catheter-related diseases in horses and associated risk factors.

A total of 102 horses that had a catheter introduced intravenously to facilitate treatment had the catheterised jugular vein and contralateral vein examined by ultrasound every 48 hours. Subclinical complications were defined by thrombus formation or thickening of the venous wall, and the data were analysed to establish risk factors for the development of these complications. The horses with a rectal temperature above 38.5 degrees C when the catheter was introduced were four times more likely to develop complications, than the horses with a lower temperature. The administration of a NSAID while the catheter was in place reduced the risk of complications developing.

Prevalence and distribution of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus within the environment and staff of a university veterinary clinic.

OBJECTIVES: To characterise the distribution of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus within the environment of a university small animal hospital and compare this with the distribution among staff. METHODS: Samples were collected from 140 environmental sites and the anterior nares of 64 staff members at the University of Glasgow Small Animal Hospital on a single day (d1). Sixty of the environmental sites were resampled 14 days later (d14). RESULTS: Meticillin-resistant S aureus was isolated from two of 140 (1.4 per cent; 95 per cent confidence interval: 1.7 to 5.1) environmental sites on d1 and one of 60 (1.7 per cent; 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.4 to 8.9) on d14. Two of the 64 staff sampled were positive for meticillin-resistant S aureus (3.1 per cent; 95 per cent confidence interval: 0.4 to 8.4). CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: A lower prevalence of meticillin-resistant S aureus was observed in the environment than previously reported. The location, relatedness between isolates and the presence of Panton-Valentine leucocidin indicates that the source of the environmental meticillin-resistant S aureus was most likely to have been human rather than animal in these cases. This study presents important information regarding the potential source and distribution of meticillin-resistant S aureus within veterinary hospital environments and highlights potential variability of prevalence of meticillin-resistant S aureus within and between veterinary institutions.

Factors associated with cross-contamination of hides of Scottish cattle by Escherichia coli O157.

The putative source of hide contamination for 236 cattle in Scotland followed from the farm through to slaughter was determined using phage and verocytotoxin type data. The majority of cattle (84%) were found to have subtypes of Escherichia coli O157 on their hide that had not been found previously in any animal from the farm of origin, strongly suggesting that contamination occurred once animals had left the farm of origin. Using logistic regression analysis, several variables and factors were found to be strongly associated (P < 0.01) with cross-contamination of cattle hides at the univariate level; commercial transport to slaughter, transport with other animals, use of a crush, line automation, and increasing slaughterhouse throughput were all risk factors, while feeding hay in lairage, processing an animal earlier in a slaughter cohort, and cleaning the landing area poststunning were protective. In the multivariable model, with the slaughterhouse and the farm group included as random effects, factors associated with the cross-contamination of cattle hides were identified. Transport to the slaughterhouse by a commercial hauler had a borderline-significant association with increased odds of an animal having a cross-contaminated hide (odds ratio [OR] [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 5.7 [0.99, 33.0]; P = 0.05). At the slaughterhouse, providing hay to cattle waiting in lairage (OR [95% CI] = 0.04 [<0.01, 1.04]; P = 0.05) and cleaning the landing area (OR [95% CI] = 0.03 [<0.01, 1.15,]; P = 0.06) also had a borderline-significant association with decreased odds of an animal having a cross-contaminated hide. Although the prevalence of carcass contamination remains very low, targeted intervention at the preslaughter stage may have the potential to reduce further the risk to public health.

Diagnostic accuracy of digital photography and image analysis for the measurement of foot conformation in the horse.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Rigorous evaluation of practicable methods for the objective assessment of foot conformation has not been performed. OBJECTIVES: To assess the practicability, precision and accuracy of the process of obtaining measurements of horses' feet using photography and image processing software. METHODS: Precision study: Lateral photographs of horses' feet were obtained twice by 2 veterinary surgeons (image acquisition - IAc). Photographs were analysed by 2 masked veterinary surgeons on 2 occasions (image analysis - IAn). Measurements were compared within and between operators for self and non-self acquired photographs. Agreement indices (AIs) and 95% limits of agreement (LOA) were calculated for the IAn process alone and for the combined IAc + IAn processes. Accuracy study: Measurements obtained from lateral photographs were compared with those obtained from lateromedial radiographs. AIs and 95% LOA were calculated for each measurement. RESULTS: Precision study: Mean intra- and interoperator AIs for the IAn process alone were > or = 0.90 while those for the combined IAc + IAn processes were > or = 0.89 for all measurements. Similar mean AIs and 95% LOA were calculated regardless of image origin. The 95% LOA for hoof angle, heel height/toe height% and coronary band angle for all comparisons were within target values. Accuracy study: Mean AIs were > or = 0.89 for all measurements. The 95% LOA for heel height/toe height% and coronary band angle were within target values. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent precision was identified within and between operators regardless of image origin. High levels of accuracy were also identified, especially for heel height/toe height% and coronary band angle, indicating that photography and radiography may be used interchangeably. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Acquisition and analysis of photographic images is an appropriate method for the objective measurement of foot conformation, both in clinical and, research settings.

An appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of newborn and juvenile rat models for researching gastrointestinal development.

Research on the impact of bioactive compounds on the development and functional maturation of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract using newborn and juvenile rats has greatly contributed to the knowledge of GI physiology and to the improved clinical management of both premature and full-term newborns. Of the animal models available, two types have been described for use with young rats--maintenance models and substitution models. Maintenance models are those in which the young are reared with the dam and therefore benefit from continuation of natural nutrition and maternal care. Substitution models are those in which the young are reared in the absence of the dam using artificially formulated milk delivered by various means into specific GI sites. In this review, we describe these models and their operation, and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each. Attention is also given to questions of scientific validity and some animal welfare issues raised by the use of these models.

Low ratios of sodium to potassium in the serum of 238 dogs.

Serum sodium:potassium (Na:K) ratios are often reported in biochemical studies of dogs, although their value has not been assessed. The aims of this study were to identify diseases associated with a low Na:K ratio in dogs and to compare their prevalence with the prevalence in dogs from the same referral hospital with normal Na:K ratios. A total of 238 dogs with a Na:K ratio less than 27 were identified from medical records. Sample contamination with edta was suspected in 74 cases (31 per cent) and these and two cases that had been supplemented with potassium were removed from the analysis. The remaining 162 cases and 147 control dogs were divided into five categories depending on the organ system affected. Among the cases there were significantly more in the endocrine category than among the control dogs. Hypoadrenocorticism was the most single common cause of a low Na:K ratio and affected 27 (16.7 per cent) of the cases. Other clinical problems associated with low Na:K ratios included different urogenital, cardiorespiratory and gastrointestinal diseases.

Serological changes observed in horses infected with Anoplocephala perfoliata after treatment with praziquantel and natural reinfection.

The serological changes in two groups of horses known to be harbouring Anoplocephala perfoliata were studied; 12 were treated with 1.5 mg/kg praziquantel and 200 microg/kg ivermectin, and 14 were treated with 200 microg/kg ivermectin. Serological and faecal analyses were carried out on each animal at intervals for 758 days. The titres of antibodies specific for A perfoliata decreased from the day of treatment to day 28 in both groups, and continued to decrease in the group treated with praziquantel and ivermectin, with the first significant decrease from the other group at day 121. From day 151 to day 295 the first significant increase in antibody levels in the group treated with both drugs was observed; no A perfoliata eggs were detected in the faeces of these animals until day 295 when five of the 10 were positive.

Clinicopathological presentation of cardiac disease in cattle and its impact on decision making.

The records of 116 cattle suffering from cardiac disease were examined retrospectively. On the basis of the results of postmortem examinations there were 52 cases of endocarditis, 39 of pericarditis and 25 congenital cardiac defects. The most useful clinical tool for differentiating between these conditions was auscultation of the heart. The cases of pericarditis were characterised by muffled heart sounds, and the cases of endocarditis and congenital cardiac defects were characterised by a cardiac murmur. Endocarditis could be differentiated from congenital cardiac defects by the presence of a jugular pulse, venous distension, oedema, a reduced appetite, pain and polyarthritis, whereas congenital defects were associated with conformational abnormalities. These two conditions could also be differentiated by differences in the plasma sodium concentration, the albumin:globulin ratio, red blood cell count, lymphocyte count and haematocrit. The ability to differentiate between these three groups of cardiac diseases can help the veterinary practitioner in deciding whether treatment, economic salvage (slaughter for human consumption) or disposal (slaughter not for human consumption) is likely to be the best option.