[The bipolarity of the genetic structure of communities of the crucian carp (Carassius linnaeus, 1758) as a reflection of paradoxal reproductive relationships].

An analysis of 133 populations of Carasiius spp. from water bodies in Ukraine showed their polyspecific structure: 62% of individuals of the studied 3453 specimens. turned out to be bisexual goldfishes C. auratus, 25%. were unisexual Prissian carps C. gibelio, 6% accounted for the aboriginal species crucian carp C. carassius, and 6% were hybrids C. auratus x C. carassius. In this case a clear trend has been revealed towards the formation of homogeneous alternative populations, specifically: either C. auratus, or C. gibelio. Individuals of C. carassius and the hybrids C. auratus x C. carassius typically comprise an admixture in various populations. The cause of the bipolar distribution of individuals of C. auratus and C. gibelio between various water bodies is the instability of mixed populations as far as individuals of C. auratus very quickly replace females of C. gibelio due to their low reproductive potential.

[Genetic structure of silver crussian carp Carassius (superspecies auratus) (Linnaeus, 1758) colonies from the Middle Dnieper basin].

Population genetic structure of silver Prussian carp from the Middle Dnieper basin was established by means of biochemical gene marking and cytometric analysis. In addition to diploid goldfish Carassius auratus, which was the basic species of bisexual colonies, a number of biotypes of triploid silver Prussian carp C. gibelio were identified. These biotypes either formed isolated unisexual populations, or were an admixture to the bisexual colonies. In addition, in bisexual colonies, triploid females of non-clonal origin were identified. Despite the fact that all forms of C. gibelio reproduced by means of gynogenesis, some of them (C. gibelio-1) formed isolated unisexual populations, while the others (C. gibelio-2, -3, and -4) usually coexisted with C. auratus.

[Genetic diversity, origin and patterns of geographic distribution of polyploid spiny loach (Cypriniformes, Cobitidae, Cobitis) in Ukraine].

Only 16 biotypes from 28 possible ones, which could be generated during hybridization of C. elongatoides, on the one hand, and representatives of superspecies C. taenia s. lato (C. taenia, C. tanaitica, C. species-1), on the other hand, were discovered in water areas of Ukraine. Furthermore. two biotypes, presumably C. aff. melanoleuca-tanaitica, were discovered in the north-western regions. Polyploids have compounded 65% of investigated individuals of Cobitis genus, the average quantity of males has compounded less than 1% and it was equal among triploids and tetraploids. Absence of amphidiploids and also lack of sufficiently large number of individuals with recombined genotype and abnormal electrophoretic spectra should be stressed. Two loci of polyploid biotypes formation are marked out: southern (the Lower Danube) and northern (the Upper Danube, Oder and Rhine). C. taenia and non-specified C. species, typical of the north-western basins of Ukraine, participate in formation of polyploids in the last mentioned river alongside with C. elongatoides and C. tanaitica. It is established that in spite of clearly evident expansion capacity, so-called southern biotypes (C. 2 (3) elongatoides-tanaitica, C. elongatoides--2 (3) tanaitica) in comparison with the northern ones, which genome includes chromosomal complement C. taenia or C. species-1, are sharply limited in their spread to the East. The reason of such a situation is unbalanced gynogenetic crossing between females of the southern biotypes and C. taenia males, accompanied by introgressions, genetic instability and reduced posterity viability.

[Ploidy and genetic structure of hybrid populations of water frogs Pelophylax esculentus (L., 1758) complex (Amphibia, Ranidae) of Ukraine].

The present study of green frog hybrid populations of Ukraine, including analysis of allozyme variability and planimetric analysis oferythrocytes size has confirmed that the unique region in this area is the Severski Donets basin The allopolyploid individuals there are met very frequently (5.7% of all investigated frogs). In other areas of Ukraine only two polyploid hybrids have been recorded. Beside that, one frog was defined as triploid Rana ridibundus. According to our investigations, all triploid hybrids from the Severski Donets basin are identified as P. esculentu (=lessonae)--2 ridibundus males.

[Inheritance of parental genomes by a hybrid form Rana "esculenta" (Amphibia, Ranidae)].

In this study, quantitative analysis of paternal genome inheritance by a hybrid form Rana "esculenta" (= Rana esculenta L., 1758 x Rana ridibunda Pall., 1881) (Amphibia, Ranidae) was examined. The hybrid form examined was characterized by a polymodal mode of inheritance (genome of any of the parental species can be inherited). The absence of correlation between the proportion of normal gametes and either sex or ploidity of the producer was demonstrated. The gametes produced could be both haploid and diploid (hybrid or homozygous). The mechanism of alloploid reproduction is discussed.

[Genetic homeostasis and developmental stability in natural populations of two-gender (Carassius auratus) and one-gender (C. gibelio) goldfishes].

Comparative analysis of one amphymictic diploid Carassius auratus, three apomictic triploid C. gibelio and hybrid triploid Carassius auratus-gibelio forms of gold fish was performed at the complex of characteristics of developmental stability: morphological variation, fluctuating asymmetry and phenodeviations. It was found that C. gibelio forms are characterized by lower levels both of morphological variation and fluctuating asymmetry and more rare cases of morphological abnormalities. A hybrid form Carassius auratus-gibelio was characterized by the intermediate values of the mentioned above features. It is emphasized that phenotypic stabilization of apomictic forms is a consequence of two factors action: its clone structure and actually developmental canalization. It is specified that promoted genetic homeostasis of C. gibelio forms does not give obvious adaptive advantages as in the basic river basins of East and Central Europe they are everywhere ousted by an amphimictic C. auratus.

[Genetic differentiation and alozyme variation of shads of genus Alosa (Clupeiformes, Alosiinae) from the Azov-Black Sea Basin].

Biochemical variation and differentiation of three species of Black-Azov sea shads (Alosa immaculata, A. caspia, A. maeotica) from three local stocks of Danube, Dnepr and Azov sea has been estimated. The research was based on the analysis of variability of 19 enzymes and 5 structural muscle loci. As a result the high degree of monomorphism and absence of any differences in allele pools were proved that confirms the point of view about their species identity. Most likely that Caspian, Brazhnikov's and Pontic shads are only morphologically discrete forms which have unreasonably appropriated a rank of a species, actually, they are the inhabited and spawning migratory ecological morphs, almost always meeting at anadromous fishes.

[Genetic structure and peculiarities of earthworms Aporrectodea (superspecies) caliginosa (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) complex on the territory of Ukraine].

The investigation of genetic structure of Aporrectodea caliginosa--A. trapezoides diploid--polyploid complex on the territory of Ukraine has been done both with biochemical gene marking of 6 loci (Aat, Es-1,-2,-3, -4, Mdh) and karyotyping. All 646 individuals of 21 samples were analyzed on the biochemical gene level. Karyotype preparations were received from 70 specimens. As a result diploid amphimictic A. caliginosa individuals (2n = 36) forming panmictic populations and triploid (2n = 54) A. trapezoides ones represented by 20 supposed clones were clearly differentiated in 157 specimens. A clear tendency of triploid form domination in the steppe zone of Ukraine where they form 70% in comparison to 12% of all A. (superspecies) caliginosa in the northern forest regions was detected. Taking into account the constant heterozygosity of the investigated loci and chromosome reaction in meiosis, the clone forms are allotriploids formed as a result of close species hybridization, but according to allele pools the amphimictic species living in Ukraine is absent. It means that either apomictic clones of A. trapezoides are not of the local origin and their appearance in the fauna of Ukraine is the result of earthworm introduction into the arid steppe regions or amphimictic A. caliginosa is an invasive species.

[The case of hybridization in spined loach (Osteichthies: Cobitidae: Cobitis) that stimulated genetical instability and expansion].

Monitoring of hybrid assemblage of spined loach carried out during the six-year period represents description of the unique case of reproductive interaction of the Danube triploid females C. 2 elongatoides--"tanaitica", spontaneously introduced in the Irpen river (Medium Dnieper river basin), with local diploid males C. taenia. As it appears from the obtained results, even during the similar "crosses" the restricted incorporation of C. taenia genetic material into C. 2 elongatoides--"tanaitica" hybrid genome takes place. As a result the descendants undergo modifications of electrophoretic hybrid spectrum of Aat-1 locus that can be interpreted as development of genetic instability. During two years the generically modified brood has not only completely superseded the normal Danube triploid descendants from the Irpen river, but also has sharply increased representation of introgressants in the basin. As a consequence the assemblage of spined loach of this river at the moment by more than one half consists of the Danube modified triploids. During subsequent gynogenetic "crosses" of already modified triploid female C. 2 elongatoides--"tanaitica" with C. taenia males tetraploid recombinants and backcrosses have appeared in the population which have never been observed in the Dnieper spined loach populations. The fact of the directional genome transformations during gynogenetic crosses proves that initialisation of an ovule splitting by spermatozoon is not generically neutral event.

[Genetic structure of diploid-polyploid complex of spined loaches Cobitis (Cypriniformes, Cobitidae) of the Danube delta].

The unusually high diversity of spined loache biotypes in Lower Danube was detected by means of biochemical genetic investigation and cytometric analysis of 358 specimens collected in riverbed and eriks. Along with two diploid species (C. elongatoides and C. "tanaitica") six hybrid forms were revealed: diploid C. elongatoides "tanaitica"; triploid C. 2 elongatoides--"tanaitica", C. elongatoides--2 "tanaitica" and C. 2 elongatoides--species-1 and tetraploid C. 3 elongatoides--"tanaitica", C. elongatoides--species-2--2 "tanaitica". Besides that the specimens with recombinant genotypes occured. In spite of the apomictic mode of reproduction the poliploids do not possess the clonal structure but according to the level of polymorphism and the genotype distribution are isomorphous to the parental diploid species. This means that on the contrary to the polyploid cobitids of the Dnieper which have appeared in this catchment area due to the expansion of their home range the polyploid fishes from the Lower Danube reaches are autochtonous and are produced as a result of hybridization with the local diploid species. The process is seemingly going on without any kind of limitations.

[The genetic asymmetry of the hybrid green frogs Rana esculenta (Amphibia: Ranidae) complex of Ukraine].

Research of the alleles of the species-specific genes in the gametal cells of Rana kl. esculenta hybrids proved the existence of three local populations within the territory of Ukraine. Their hybrids reject either the genome of lake frog (Danube lowland), either the previous one or another one genome (basin of Severskiy Donets river), either the genome of pond frog (the residuary territory of the areal). The research of skin transplants rejection of hybrids' parental species has shown that despite the orientation of genome elimination of this population the graft of lake frog always starts identifying and rejecting earlier. That is why the genetic skewness of hybrids becomes apparent at the skin level and corresponds to its manifestations at the organism level.

[Genetic structure of the spawning population of Danube shad, Alosa pontica, Eichwaldt 1838 (Clupeiformes, Alosiinae)].

The genetic structure of the population of Danube shad, Alosa pontica, has been studied by means of analysis of 3 polymorphic biochemical gene loci. The results of the study provide evidence of its genetic heterogeneity which is expressed by: firstly, an unbalanced ratio of genotype loci manifested by an excess of rare homozygotes and deficite of the correspoding heterozygotes, and secondly, differences in the allele frequencies between shad populations arriving for spawning in March-April and May-June. It is suggested that there could be two causes of heterogeneity: one due to the introgressive hybridization between various forms of A. pontica and another to the differences between early and late spring races of shad which to a certain extent are reproductively autonomous.

[Genetic variation of Azov and Black sea herring Alosa pontica (Eihwald, 1838), (Clupeiformes, Alosinae) in Danube river: analysis of biochemical gene markers].

Genetic variation and structure of Danube stock of Aloca pontica pontica were investigated during the spawning moving by means of biochemical genetic marking. The level of heterozygosity was Hobs = 0,009. It is essentially lower than the average level for populations of other Teleostei and Clupeidae representatives. Polymorphism was defined only for Es-D of 20 analyzed loci expressed in muscle tissues. The allele frequencies for this locus were reliably different in the early spawning and later spawning parts of the stock, as well as proportion of heterozygotes and genotype diversity which was higher at the beginning of spawning moving. These results are discussed from two points of view: genetic differences between subpopulations in the course of spawning moving and presence of two close species of herring which come for the spawning together and hybridize to each other.

[Correlation between variability and body size in vertebrates]. / Sviaz' geneticheskoi izmenchivosti s razmerom tela u pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh.

An analysis of allozymic variation carried out in the main groups of vertebrate animals revealed a tendency towards the increased level of genetic polymorphism in the species of small animals compared to the large ones. This tendency was clearly followed in caudate amphibians, fishes, and mammals. The data are discussed in terms of the integration of monogenic and polygenic systems in the populations. It is hypothesized that this relationship between heterozygosity and body size confirms more general regularity consisting in highly statistically significant correlation between polygenic heterozygosity, maturation rate and life span. It is suggested that high rate of development in small animals resulting in early sexual maturation, can serve as a mechanism determining correlation between heterozygosity and body size at the species level. As a result, compared to large animals, small animals display higher rates of generation change, resulting in accelerated growth of population size and faster accumulation of genetic variability.

[Gradualism or punctualism: data on genetic differentiationof small mammals from the Holarctic region]. / Gradualizm ili punktualizm: dannye po gennoi differentsiatsii melkikh mlekopitaiushchikh Golarktiki.

Genetic differentiation of taxa from three Holarctic and three originally Afrotropical phyla of small mammals was analyzed. Its extrapolation to the time scale revealed the following trends: (1) Distributions of fixed gene differences along the scale are relatively independent. (2) Extrapolation of these distributions to the time scale shows that the speciation process is discontinuous. It consists of relatively stable periods interrupted by speciation bursts. (3) Periods of speciation activity in different phyla coincide. In general, these results are consistent with the concept of punctuated equilibria and suggest that the speciation process is temporally discontinuous.

[Genetic differentiation and phylogenetic relationships among Palearctic mice (Rodentia, Muridae)]. / Geneticheskaia differentsiatsiia i filogeneticheskie sviazi myshei Palearktiki (Rodentia, Muridae).

Genetic differentiation of 18 Palearctic mouse species (genera Sylvaemus, Mus, Apodemus, Micromys, and Rattus) with respect to 31 biochemical loci was estimated to define the taxonomic status of these genera. On the basis of genetic data, two independent centers of origin of species belonging to the family Muridae were identified. The first is the Indo-African center, from which the modern Sylvaemus species and Palearctic representatives of Mus originated in the Pleistocene (1.0-2.0 million years ago). Genera Micromys and Apodemus, which diverged in early Pliocene (about 7 million years ago), trace their origin to the same center. From the second center, located in Southeast Asia, Rattus species radiated. The genetic divergence of taxa issuing from these two centers attains the level characteristic of differentiation between families and dates back to the late Miocene (over 10 million years ago). Species were compared pairwise to determine the percent of fixed gene differences (Pfd) between them. Analysis of Pfd distribution confirmed distinct periodicity of speciation in mice and revealed two speciation peaks. The first, at the level of genera, occurred in the Pliocene, and the second, at the species level, in the Pleistocene.

[Allozyme variation of lactate dehydrogenase (EC1.1.1.27) in a series of vertebrate animals]. / Kharakter allozimnoi izmenchivosti laktatdegidrogenazy (EC1.1.1.27) v riadu pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh.

An allozyme variation of loci-encoding lactate dehydrogenase was compared in different vertebrate classes. A lower level of heterozygosity in warm-blooded as compared to cold-blooded vertebrates was shown. The highest heterozygosity was revealed in anurous and caudate amphibians; the lowest, in birds and mammals. Fishes and reptiles exhibited an intermediate level of heterozygosity. In higher groups of vertebrates, differences in the electrophoretic mobilities between alleles decreased. A key aspect of this is a hiatus of these differences in fishes and mammals. On the basis of this analysis, the following conclusions may be drawn: (1) the rate of amino-acid substitutions in homologous proteins is unequal in distant phylogenetic lineages; (2) the level of heterozygosity is related to the average amount of electrophoretic allelic differences at the class level; (3) significant differences in variation pattern in the phylogenetic lineage of vertebrates is probably associated with the evolutionary features of the genomic organization of groups at different evolutionary levels.

[Variation of loci encoding homologous enzymes in an evolutionary series of vertebrates]. / Izmenchivost' lokusov, kodiruiushchikh gomologichnye fermenty, v riadu pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh.

A study of variability of 11 allozyme loci (sAat, G3pdh, Gpi, sIdh, Ldh-A, Ldh-B, sMdh, sMe, sSod, Pgdh, and Sdh) in the evolutionary series of vertebrates from Cyclostomat to Mammalia revealed that (1) in vertebrates, these loci encoding multimeric enzymes are characterized by different heterozygosity levels, the extremes of which (represented by loci Ldh-A and Pgdh) differ from each other more than by a factor of 4; (2) classes of vertebrates markedly differed from one another in genetic variation; lower Tetrapoda are characterized by the highest level of genetic polymorphism, the classes representing the margins of the phyletic line-primitive (Cyclostomata and Chondrchthyes) and advanced (Aves and Mammalia)--have minimum heterozygosity levels, whereas Osteichthyes are characterized by intermediate heterozygosity level; (3) in the evolutionary series of vertebrates, heterozygosity varies rather independently in the groups of loci characterized by low, medium, and high variability. These patterns are explained in the context of intraorganismic factors: integration of mono- and polygenic traits (primarily, body size and ontogeny rate) and evolutionary specialization.

[Genetic divergence of Mus musculus musculus and M. m. hortulanus]. / Geneticheskaia divergentsiia domovoi i kurganchikovoi myshei.

Genetic divergence between house mouse and gleaner mouse from different regions of Ukraine was estimated by electrophoresis at 26 loci. Four diagnostic loci were established among these species: IDH-1, Est-1,2,4. Genetic distance between species is 0.217, which is in accordance with genetic differences between other species of the genus Mus. The results obtained give evidence that house and gleaner mouse are different species.

[Genetic structure of species community of macromycetes of the genus Leccinum Gray (Basidiomycetes, Boletaceae) of the right-bank Poles'ye]. / Geneticheskaia struktura vidovogo soobshchestva makromitsetov roda Leccinum Gray (Basidiomycetes, Boletaceae) pravoberezhnogo Poles'ia.

The biochemical gene marking of the macromycete community of the genus Leccinum revealed nine reproductively isolated genetically differentiated forms instead of 2-5 forms traditionally recognized in Poles'ye. From 20 to 85% of the loci studied were found to have genetic distinctions and the degree of genetic variation did not always correlate with the morphological features of the forms identified. The variation of the locus number was found to be an important differentiating factor characteristic for this genus. In the group of L. scabrum s. I., every second locus was duplicated, whereas multiple isozymes were absent in L. aurantiacum s. I. The extremely high level of allozyme variation in macromycetes was found. The equilibrium between the expected and observed genotypes in the fruit body samples was established and discussed. It was the evidence of the fact that a panmictic model can be applied to the mushrooms of this genus, and that each fruit body is an individual organism.