Conflicting attitudes between clinicians and women regarding maternal requested caesarean section: a qualitative evidence synthesis.

BACKGROUND: Caesarean section (CS) can be a life-saving operation but might also negatively affect the health of both the woman and the baby. The aim of this study was to synthesize and contrast women's and clinicians' attitudes toward maternal-requested CS, and their experiences of the decision-making process around CS. METHODS: The databases of CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsycInfo and Scopus were screened. All qualitative studies that answered the study question and that were assessed to have minor or moderate methodological limitations were included. Synthesised findings were assessed using GRADE-CERQual. RESULTS: The Qualitative Evidence Synthesis included 14 qualitative studies (published 2000-2022), involving 242 women and 141 clinicians. From the women's perspectives, two themes arose: women regarded CS as the safest mode of birth; and women's rights to receive support and acceptance for a CS request. From the clinicians' perspectives, four themes emerged: clinicians were concerned about health risks associated with CS; demanding experience to consult women with a CS request; conflicting attitudes about women's rights to choose a CS; and the importance of respectful and constructive dialogue about birthing options. CONCLUSION: Women and clinicians often had different perceptions regarding the right of a woman to choose CS, the risks associated with CS, and the kind of support that should be part of the decision-making process. While women expected to receive acceptance for their CS request, clinicians perceived that their role was to support the woman in the decision-making process through consultation and discussion. While clinicians thought it was important to show respect for a woman's birth preferences, they also felt the need to resist a woman's request for CS and encourage her to give birth vaginally due to the associated increases in health risks.

School-based self-harm prevention programs: A systematic review with implications for international implementation.

Both self-harm and suicidal behaviors have been targeted through school-based prevention programs, many of which have been developed in the United States. The aims of this systematic review were to assess effects of school-based prevention programs on suicide and self-harm and to evaluate whether they are fit to the exporting culture. The review followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Our inclusion criteria, structured according to population/problem, intervention, control/comparison, outome, were: children and youth up to 19 years of age, school-based programs at universal, selective or indicated levels compared with teaching as usual or with other programs, and outcomes of suicide or self-harm measured at least 10 weeks after intervention. Studies without a control group or using non-behavioral outcomes were excluded. A comprehensive and systematic literature search was conducted from the 1990s to March 2022. Risk for bias was assessed with checklists adapted from the Cochrane Risk of Bias (ROB) tool. A total of 1,801 abstracts were retrieved. Five studies fulfilled our inclusion criteria, but one had high risk for bias. Confidence in the evidence for effect was assessed with Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). Studies included in this review were evaluated with respect to applicability in the context of international export. Only two school-based programs demonstrated efficacy in preventing suicidal behaviors. Although implementation of evidence-based interventions is a crucial next step, further replication with simultaneous attention to dissemination and implementation issues are called for. Funding and registration: conducted on assignment by the Swedish government. The protocol is available at the SBU website in Swedish.

Feasibility of referral to a therapist for assessment of psychiatric problems in primary care - an interview study.

BACKGROUND: Depression and anxiety disorders are common in primary care. Comorbidities are frequent, and the diagnoses can be difficult. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) can be a support in the clinical examination of patients with complex problems. However, for family practitioners (FPs), time and perceptions about structured interviews can be barriers to the MINI. An inter-professional teamwork process where FPs refer a patient to a therapist for a MINI assessment represents one way in which to address the problem. The results are fed back to the FPs for diagnosis and treatment decisions. The purposes of this study were to explore if the process was feasible for FPs, patients and therapists in Swedish primary care, and to identify factors influencing the process, using the COM-B model. METHODS: FPs at two primary care centers (PHCC) in Stockholm were offered the opportunity to refer patients to in-house therapists. Semi-structured interviews or focus groups were conducted with 22 patients, 17 FPs and three therapists to capture their experiences and perceptions. Inductive content analysis for each group of participants was followed by triangulation across groups. Finally, the categories obtained were fitted to the components in the COM-B. RESULTS: Therapists at both PHCCs conducted the MINI. The intended process was adopted at one PHCC. At the second PHCC, the responsibilities for the diagnosis and treatment of patients referred were transferred to the therapist. The patients were satisfied, as they appreciated multi-professional examinations. The FPs' competence in psychiatry, actual access to therapists, beliefs that the referrals saved the FPs time and effort, and established habits influenced whether patients were referred. Existing routines and professional expectations for work content influenced the degree of cooperation between the therapists and the FPs. CONCLUSIONS: An inter-professional diagnostic process where FPs refer patients to a therapist for assessment and the results are fed back to the FPs can be feasible. Feasibility depends on access to a therapist, the perceptions of roles and competences among FPs and therapists, and strategies for supporting teamwork.

The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview is useful and well accepted as part of the clinical assessment for depression and anxiety in primary care: a mixed-methods study.

BACKGROUND: Psychiatric complaints are common among primary care patients, with depression and anxiety being the most frequent. Diagnosis of anxiety and depression can be difficult, potentially leading to over- as well as under-diagnosis. The diagnostic process can be facilitated by incorporating structured interviews as part of the assessment. One such instrument, the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), has been established and accepted in psychiatric care. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences and perceptions of the paper-and-pen version of MINI version 6.0 among patients and staff in primary care centers in Sweden. METHODS: The MINI was introduced at three primary care centers and was conducted by either therapists or general practitioners. Patients presented with symptoms that could suggest depression or anxiety disorders. The duration of the interview was recorded. The experiences and perceptions of 125 patients and their interviewers were collected using a structured questionnaire. Global satisfaction was measured with a visual-analog scale (0-100). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 patients and three therapists, and focus groups were held with 17 general practitioners. Qualitative content analysis was used for the interviews and focus groups. The findings across the groups were triangulated with results from the questionnaires. RESULTS: The median global satisfaction with the MINI was 80 for patients and 86 for interviewers. General practitioners appreciated that the MINI identified comorbidities, as one-third of the patients had at least two psychiatric diagnoses. The MINI helped general practitioners attain a more accurate diagnosis. Patients appreciated that the MINI helped them recognize and verbalize their problems and did not find it intrusive. Patients and interviewers had mixed experiences with the yes-no format of the MINI, and the risk of subjective interpretations was acknowledged. Patients, general practitioners and therapists stated that the MINI contributed to appropriate treatment. The MINI assessment lasted 26 min on average (range 12 to 60 min). CONCLUSIONS: The paper-and-pen version of the MINI could be useful in primary care as part of the clinical assessment of patients with problems suggestive of depression or anxiety disorders. The MINI was well accepted by patients, general practitioners and therapists.

Patients' perspectives on the use of the Montgomery-Asberg depression rating scale self-assessment version in primary care.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to better understand how patients with depression perceive the use of MADRS-S in primary care consultations with GPs. DESIGN: Qualitative study. Focus group discussion and analysis through Systematic Text Condensation. SETTING: Primary Health Care, Region Västra Götaland, Sweden. SUBJECTS: Nine patients with mild/moderate depression who participated in a RCT evaluating the effects of regular use of the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Self-assessment scale (MADRS-S) during the GP consultations. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Patients' experiences and perceptions of the use of MADRS-S in primary care. RESULTS: Three categories emerged from the analysis: (I) confirmation; MADRS-S shows that I have depression and how serious it is, (II) centeredness; the most important thing is for the GP to listen to and take me seriously and (III) clarification; MADRS-S helps me understand why I need treatment for depression. CONCLUSION: Use of MADRS-S was perceived as a confirmation for the patients that they had depression and how serious it was. MADRS-S showed the patients something black on white that describes and confirms the diagnosis. The informants emphasized the importance of patient-centeredness; of being listened to and to be taken seriously during the consultation. Use of self-assessment scales such as MADRS-S could find its place, but needs to adjust to the multifaceted environment that primary care provides. Key Points Patients with depression in primary care perceive that the use of a self-assessment scale in the consultation purposefully can contribute in several ways. The scale contributes to Confirmation: MADRS-S shows that I have depression and how serious it is. Centeredness: The most important thing is for the GP to listen to and take me seriously. Clarification: MADRS-S helps me understand why I need treatment for depression.

Effects of Hesel-coil deep transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression - a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: One third of the depressed patients are not improved by antidepressant drugs and psychological treatments, and there is a need for additional treatments. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is being developed towards an alternative in treatment-resistant depression. Deep transcranial stimulation (dTMS) with the Hesel-coil (H-coil) is a further development of rTMS aiming to enhance the effect by getting the magnetic pulses to penetrate deeper into the brain. AIMS: This report aims to assess the evidence-base for dTMS for depression. The report also includes an assessment of the ethical and economic aspects involved. METHODS: A systematic review of the effects of H-coil dTMS on depression was conducted and the scientific support was evaluated using GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation). RESULTS: Only one controlled study was identified. In the sham-controlled randomized study, 212 participants with major depression that had not responded to antidepressant medication were enrolled. A two-point superiority in Hamilton Depression Rating Scale was observed in the dTMS arm vs the sham-arm at 4 weeks, but the difference was not statistically significant. No serious adverse events were reported apart from rare cases of epileptic seizures. CONCLUSIONS: The existing scientific support for H-coil dTMS therapy for depression is insufficient. The clinical implication is that the use of dTMS in depression should be restricted to the framework of clinical trials pending further studies. Fortunately, additional studies are underway and the evidence base should presumably improve over the next several years.

Which instruments to support diagnosis of depression have sufficient accuracy? A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Instruments are frequently used in case finding, diagnosis and severity grading of major depression, but the evidence supporting their utility is weak. AIM: To systematically review the specificity and sensitivity of instruments used to diagnose and grade the severity of depression. METHODS: MEDLINE, PsycInfo, Embase and the Cochrane Library databases were searched until April 2014. Fifty studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed with QUADAS. The average sensitivity and specificity of each instrument was estimated with hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristics analyses and the confidence in the estimates was evaluated using GRADE. Minimum acceptable sensitivity/specificity, with structured interview as the reference, was 80%/80% for structured interviews and 80%/70% for case-finding instruments. The minimum acceptable standard for severity measures was a correlation of 0.7 with DSM-IV classification. RESULTS: Twenty instruments were investigated. The average sensitivity/specificity was 85%/92% for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Axis-I Disorders (SCID-I), 95%/84% for the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), < 70%/85% for the Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders (PRIME-MD), 88%/78% for the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) with a cut-off score of 10, 69%/95% for PHQ-9 as a diagnostic algorithm and 70%/83% for the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) with a cut-off score of 7. The confidence in the estimates for the other instruments was very low. CONCLUSIONS: Only the SCID-I, MINI and PHQ-9 with a cut-off score of 10 fulfilled the minimum criteria for sensitivity and specificity. The use of the PRIME-MD and HADS is not supported by current evidence.

To score or not to score: a qualitative study on GPs views on the use of instruments for depression.

BACKGROUND: To improve the detection, diagnosis and follow-up of depression in primary care patients, it has been proposed that GPs should employ assessment instruments as a complement to the consultation. However, most GPs do not use such instruments routinely. OBJECTIVE: To explore perceptions of Swedish GPs on the use of instruments in the medical consultation. METHODS: Twenty-seven GPs discussed in five focus groups that were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed by systematic text condensation. RESULTS: Six code groups emerged from the focus group discussions: (i) a perceived pressure from authorities and psychiatry to report depression scores; (ii) the scores were considered to be of limited value for the GP but could help the patient by facilitating sick leave compensation and hospitalization; (iii) instruments hampered the dialogue with the patient and non-verbal information was lost; (iv) the reliability of questionnaires was questioned; (v) instruments were seen as not fitting into primary care and GPs were uncertain how to use them and (vi) the main advantage of instruments was to promote communication with specific categories of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Using instruments to obtain a quantitative score of depression was of no benefit to the GPs. Given the weak evidence for the clinical relevance of many instruments, there is little reason to introduce them into practice. However, the instruments can facilitate communication with external actors and specific groups of patients.

Team-based rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury: a qualitative synthesis of evidence of experiences of the rehabilitation process.

OBJECTIVE: To synthesize and explore experiences of the rehabilitation process for adults with traumatic brain injury receiving team-based rehabilitation. DATA SOURCES: A qualitative evidence synthesis was conducted according to the "Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research" (ENTREQ) Guidelines, of qualitative studies published in 5 databases in 2000-21. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION: Screening, selection of relevant studies, assessment of methodological limitations, systematic qualitative content analysis and assessment of confidence with Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation- Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative research (GRADE-CERQual) were carried out by independent researchers. DATA SYNTHESIS: The 10 included studies revealed how people with traumatic brain injury perceived that they struggled on their own for a long time to adapt their daily life. They experienced that access to team-based rehabilitation was scarce and that the interventions offered were neither individually tailored nor coordinated. A respectful attitude from professionals and individually adapted information facilitated their rehabilitation process. CONCLUSION: This qualitative evidence synthesis indicates areas for improvement and a need to develop person-centred team-based rehabilitation for adults with traumatic brain injury, in terms of accessibility, coordination, continuity, content and participation. Given the limited opportunities for team-based rehabilitation after hospital discharge, further research is needed to understand how rehabilitation can support the adaptation of everyday life.

Experiences of eating disorders from the perspectives of patients, family members and health care professionals: a meta-review of qualitative evidence syntheses.

BACKGROUND: Eating disorders are serious conditions that cause major suffering for patients and their families. Better knowledge about perceptions of eating disorders and their treatment, and which factors that facilitate or hinder recovery, is desired in order to develop the clinical work. We aimed to explore and synthesise experiences of eating disorders from the perspectives of those suffering from an eating disorder, their family members and health care professionals through an overarching meta-review of systematic reviews in the field. METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted in the databases PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, and CINAHL. Inclusion criteria were systematic reviews of qualitative research on experiences, perceptions, needs, or desires related to eating disorders from the perspective of patients, family members or health care professionals. Systematic reviews that fulfilled the inclusion criteria were assessed for relevance and methodological limitations by at least two researchers independently. The key findings were analysed and synthesised into themes. RESULTS: We identified 17 systematic reviews that met our inclusion criteria. Of these, 13 reviews reported on the patients' perspective, five on the family members' perspective, and three on the health care professionals' perspective. The study population in the reviews was predominantly girls and young women with anorexia nervosa, whilst systematic reviews focusing on other eating disorders were scarce. The findings regarding each of the three perspectives resulted in themes that could be synthesised into three overarching themes: 1) being in control or being controlled, 2) balancing physical recovery and psychological needs, and 3) trusting relationships. CONCLUSIONS: There were several similarities between the views of patients, family members and health care professionals, especially regarding the significance of building trustful therapeutic alliances that also included family members. However, the informants sometimes differed in their views, particularly on the use of the biomedical model, which was seen as helpful by health care professionals, while patients and family members felt that it failed to address their psychological distress. Acknowledging these differences is important for the understanding of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders, and may help clinicians to broaden treatment approaches to meet the expectations of patients and family members.

The current paper brings together existing knowledge on experiences of eating disorders. We were interested in the views of patients, family members and health care professionals. A literature search identified 17 systematic reviews which addressed these questions. The identified research focused mainly on girls and young women with anorexia nervosa, while research on other eating disorders was limited. Overall, this review suggests that it is important to acknowledge that patients, family members and health care professionals may have different experiences and views regarding treatment of eating disorders, and that it is important to consider all these views in the development of the care of eating disorders.

How Women with Endometriosis Experience Health Care Encounters.

Objective: The aim of this meta-synthesis was to synthesize and interpret the available qualitative studies to increase our understanding and extend knowledge about how women with endometriosis experience health care encounters. Methods: The literature review was carried out using CINAHL, Psychinfo, Academic Search Premier, PubMed, and Scopus, from 2000 to 2018, and was limited to articles in English. Articles were only included if they reported original relevant research on endometriosis and women experiences. Results: The meta-synthesis was based on 14 relevant studies. They included 370 women with diagnosed endometriosis, 16-78 years of age. Three fusions were identified and interpreted in this meta-synthesis. The first was: Insufficiency knowledge, where the physicians could judge the symptoms to be normal menstruation without examining whether there were other underlying causes. The second fusion was Trivializing-just a women's issue, where the physicians thought that the symptoms were part of being a woman, and women's' discomfort was trivialized or completely disregarded. The third fusion was Competency promotes health, where the insufficiency of knowledge became a minor concern if women had a supportive relationship with their physician and the physician showed interest in their problems. Conclusions: Women with endometriosis experience that they are treated with ignorance regarding endometriosis in nonspecialized care. They experience delays in both their diagnosis and treatment and feel that health care professionals do not take their problems seriously. In addition, it appears that increased expertise and improved attitudes among health care professionals could improve the life situation of women with endometriosis.

Psychological, pharmacological, and combined treatments for binge eating disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the efficacy of psychological, pharmacological, and combined treatments for binge eating disorder (BED). METHOD: Systematic search and meta-analysis. RESULTS: We found 45 unique studies with low/medium risk of bias, and moderate support for the efficacy of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) and CBT guided self-help (with moderate quality of evidence), and modest support for interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), and lisdexamfetamine (with low quality of evidence) in the treatment of adults with BED in terms of cessation of or reduction in the frequency of binge eating. The results on weight loss were disappointing. Only lisdexamfetamine showed a very modest effect on weight loss (low quality of evidence). While there is limited support for the long-term effect of psychological treatments, we have currently no data to ascertain the long-term effect of drug treatments. Some undesired side effects are more common in drug treatment compared to placebo, while the side effects of psychological treatments are unknown. Direct comparisons between pharmaceutical and psychological treatments are lacking as well as data to generalize these results to adolescents. CONCLUSION: We found moderate support for the efficacy of CBT and guided self-help for the treatment of BED. However, IPT, SSRI, and lisdexamfetamine received only modest support in terms of cessation of or reduction in the frequency of binge eating. The lack of long-term follow-ups is alarming, especially with regard to medication. Long-term follow-ups, standardized assessments including measures of quality of life, and the study of underrepresented populations should be a priority for future research.

Instruments for the assessment of suicide risk: A systematic review evaluating the certainty of the evidence.

BACKGROUND: Instruments have been developed to facilitate suicide risk assessment. We aimed to evaluate the evidence for these instruments including assessment of risk of bias and diagnostic accuracy for suicide and suicide attempt. METHODS: PubMed (NLM), PsycInfo, Embase, Cinahl and the Cochrane Library databases were searched until December 2014. We assessed risk of bias with QUADAS-2. The average sensitivity and specificity of each instrument was estimated and the certainty of the evidence was assessed with GRADE. We considered instruments with a sensitivity > 80% and a specificity > 50% to have sufficient diagnostic accuracy. RESULTS: Thirty-five relevant studies were identified but 14 were considered to have high risk of bias, leaving 21 studies evaluating altogether 15 risk assessment instruments. We could carry out meta-analyses for five instruments. For the outcome suicide attempt SAD PERSONS Scale had a sensitivity of 15% (95% CI 8-24) and specificity of 97% (96-98), and the Manchester Self-Harm Rule (MSHR) a sensitivity of 97% (97-97) and a specificity of 20% (20-21). ReACT, which is a modification of MSHR, had a similar low specificity, as did the Sodersjukhuset Self Harm Rule. For the outcome suicide, the Beck Hopelessness Scale had a sensitivity of 89% (78-95) and specificity of 42% (40-43). CONCLUSIONS: Most suicide risk assessment instruments were supported by too few studies to allow for evaluation of accuracy. Among those that could be evaluated, none fulfilled requirements for sufficient diagnostic accuracy.

[Treatment of anxiety syndrome. A systematic literature review. Summary and conclusions by the SBU]. / Behandling av angestsyndrom. En systematisk litteraturöversikt. SBUs sammanfattning och slutsatser.

A report by the Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU) has reviewed, classified and evaluated the scientific literature on treatment of panic syndrome, specific phobias, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive syndrome (OCD), generalized anxiety syndrome (GAD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The review included treatment of children, adolescents and adults. The report concludes that there is effective treatment available for all anxiety syndromes. However in general, the effect is often moderate and symptoms reappear when the treatment period is discontinued. For adults, scientific evidence supports the use of paroxetine and sertraline for all syndromes except specific phobias. For the other SSRI's there is also evidence for the use of fluoxetin in OCD and PTSD, for fluvoxamine in social phobia and OCD and for escitalopram in social phobia. Other antidepressant drugs with a strong scientific support is venlafaxin in social phobia and GAD, imipramin in panic syndrome and chlomipramine in panic syndrome and OCD. Among psychological treatments, there is scientific evidence for cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) for treatment of panic syndrome, specific phobias, social phobia, PTSD and GAD. Exposure, with or without other psychotherapeutic interventions, has scientific support for efficacy in panic disorder (both in terms of number of panic attacks and for agoraphobia), specific phobias, OCD and PTSD. Use of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has scientific support for treatment of PTSD.

Bright white light therapy in depression: A critical review of the evidence.

BACKGROUND: Light therapy is an accepted treatment option, at least for seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Our aim was to critically evaluate treatment effects of bright white light (BWL) on the depressive symptoms in both SAD and non-seasonal depression. METHODS: The systematic review was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Embase, and PsycINFO were searched (December 1974 through June 2014) for randomized controlled trials published in peer-reviewed journals. Study quality was assessed with a checklist developed by the Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care. Only studies with high or medium quality were used in the meta-analyses. RESULTS: Eight studies of SAD and two studies of non-seasonal depression met inclusion and quality criteria. Effects on SAD were estimated in two meta-analyses. In the first, week by week, BWL reached statistical significance only at two and three weeks of treatment (Standardized Mean Difference, SMD: -0.50 (-CI 0.94, -0.05); -0.31 (-0.59, -0.03) respectively). The second meta-analysis, of endpoint data only, showed a SMD of -0.54 (CI: -0.95, -0.13), which indicates an advantage for BWL. No meta-analysis was performed for non-seasonal depression due to heterogeneity between studies. LIMITATIONS: This analysis is restricted to short-term effects of BWL measured as mean changes in scores derived from SIGH-SAD, SIGH-SAD self-report, or HDRS rating scales. CONCLUSIONS: Most studies of BWL have considerable methodological problems, and the results of published meta-analyses are highly dependent on the study selection. Even though quality criteria are introduced in the selection procedures of studies, when the results are carefully scrutinized, the evidence is not unequivocal.

Programs for Prevention of Externalizing Problems in Children: Limited Evidence for Effect Beyond 6 Months Post Intervention.

BACKGROUND: Preventing externalizing problems in children is a major societal concern, and a great number of intervention programs have been developed to this aim. To evaluate their preventive effects, well-controlled trials including follow-up assessments are necessary. METHODS: This is a systematic review of the effect of prevention programs targeting externalizing problems in children. The review covered peer reviewed publications in English, German, French, Spanish and Scandinavian languages. Experimental studies of standardized programs explicitly aiming at preventing externalizing mental ill-health in children (2-19 years), with outcome assessments at ≥6 months post intervention for both intervention and control groups, were included. We also included long-term trials with consecutive observations over several years, even in the absence of follow-up ≥6 months post intervention. Studies of clinical populations or children with impairments, which substantially increase the risk for mental disorders, were excluded. RESULTS: Thirty-eight controlled trials assessing 25 different programs met inclusion criteria. Only five programs were supported by scientific evidence, representing selective parent training (Incredible Years and Triple-P), indicated family support (Family Check-Up), and school-based programs (Good Behavior Game, universally delivered, and Coping Power, as an indicated intervention). With few exceptions, effects after 6-12 months were small. Long-term trials showed small and inconsistent effects. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a vast literature, the evidence for preventive effects is meager, largely due to insufficient follow-up post intervention. Long-term follow up assessment and effectiveness studies should be given priority in future evaluations of interventions to prevent externalizing problems in children.