Sexual function in women with anal incontinence using a new instrument: the PISQ-IR.

INTRODUCTION: Anal incontinence (AI) has been associated with sexual complaints. The Pelvic Organ Prolapse/Incontinence Sexual Questionnaire-IUGA Revised (PISQ-IR) has been validated to measure sexual function in sexually active (SA) and non-SA (NSA) women with pelvic floor disorders (PFD) including AI. We describe symptoms in women with PFDs including AI using this instrument. METHODS: This was a planned secondary analysis of data collected for the validation of the PISQ-IR. SA and NSA women with symptoms of pelvic organ prolapse, urinary incontinence (UI) and/or AI at 12 US and 5 UK sites were recruited. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and PISQ-IR were completed in addition to the Pelvic Floor Distress Inventory (PFDI), and other measures. RESULTS: Of 872 women enrolled, 90 (10%) reported AI. Compared with women without AI, women with AI were more likely to report stress UI (p = 0.007), urgency UI (p < 0.001), mixed UI (p < 0.001), diabetes (p = 0.036) and depression (p < 0.001), and to show larger genital hiatus measurements (p = 0.005) and more underactive pelvic floor muscles (p = 0.011). Furthermore, scores on the PFDI showed greater bother (p = 0.013), particularly the colorectal subscale (p < 0.001). While sexual activity was similar between the groups, FSFI desire (p = 0.016), PISQ-IR 'condition-specific' (p = 0.03) and 'global quality' (p = 0.046) domains were worse in women with AI. In logistic regression analysis, only the PISQ-IR 'condition-specific' domain was associated with AI when controlling for other confounders (OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.10 - 0.72, p = 0.009). CONCLUSIONS: Women with AI have similar rates of sexual activity but poorer sexual function than women without AI. The PISQ-IR may be most appropriate to characterize these conditions.

The PISQ-IR: considerations in scale scoring and development.

INTRODUCTION: This paper provides a detailed discussion of the psychometric analysis and scoring of a revised measure of sexual function in women with pelvic floor disorders (PFD): the Pelvic Organ Prolapse Incontinence Sexual Questionnaire, IUGA-Revised (PISQ-IR). METHODS: Standard tools for evaluating item distributions, relationships, and psychometric properties were used to identify sub-scales and determine how the sub-scales should be scored. The evaluation of items included a nonresponse analysis, the nature of missingness, and imputation methods. The minimum number of items required to be answered and three different scoring methods were evaluated: simple summation, mean calculation, and transformed summation. RESULTS: Item nonresponse levels are low in women who are sexually active and the psychometric properties of the scales are robust. Moderate levels of item nonresponse are present for women who are not sexually active, which presents some concerns relative to the robustness of the scales. Single imputation for missing items is not advisable and multiple imputation methods, while plausible, are not recommended owing to the complexity of their application in clinical research. The sub-scales can be scored using either mean calculation or transformed summation. Calculation of a summary score is not recommended. CONCLUSION: The PISQ-IR demonstrates strong psychometric properties in women who are sexually active and acceptable properties in those who are not sexually active. To score the PISQ-IR sub-scales, half of the items must be answered, imputation is not recommended, and either mean calculation or transformed sum methods are recommended. A summary score should not be calculated.

Investigation of optimal cues to instruction for pelvic floor muscle contraction: a pilot study using 2D ultrasound imaging in pre-menopausal, nulliparous, continent women.

AIMS: Optimal urethrovesical positioning (UVP) may be important for continence. Pelvic floor muscle contraction (PFMC) influences UVP. PFMC instruction cues vary and often encourage anterior PFM recruitment that may result in sub-maximal posterior facilitation. STUDY HYPOTHESIS: posterior or combined cues are more influential in optimizing UVP during PFMC following a brief practice period than anterior cue. METHODS: Seventeen pre-menopausal, nulliparous, continent women were taught selective PFMC using different cues: anterior; posterior; anterior and posterior combined. Perineal ultrasound images of three PFMC for each cue were captured in supine and standing twice, 5 min apart. For reliability two raters measured data using angle of urethral inclination (AUI). Data analysis was undertaken using a customized General Linear Model ANOVA testing for interactions between all variables; subject, cue, posture, and test. Post hoc Bonferroni correction was used with a significance level of 0.05. RESULTS: The ANOVA showed significant differences between variables (P = 0.000). Post hoc analysis indicated significant differences between posterior and anterior cues 4.240° (P = 0.003); combined and anterior 3.756° (P = 0.009) but not between posterior and combined cues -0.484° (P = 1.00). Mean difference in AUI between supine and standing was 9.496° (P = 0.000); however, the interaction of cues and postures was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: AUI was significantly more acute/optimal when PFMC instruction included a posterior cue. This may be due to optimal recruitment of puborectalis and other posterior regional muscles which may be sub-maximally recruited with anterior cue. Investigation of the potential impact of these findings and possible usefulness of standardized instructions in PFM training is required.

BMS - Consensus statement.

Urogenital atrophy is more common than it would first appear and women do not always seek advice and guidance. Confusion still exists between systemic hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and local estrogen preparations but new treatment modalities have emerged that extend the range of options beyond lubricants, moisturisers and vaginal estrogen preparations.

Pulsed estrogen therapy improves postmenopausal quality of life: a 2-year placebo-controlled study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of pulsed estrogen therapy S21400 (intranasal 17 beta-estradiol) on different quality of life (QoL) dimensions in early postmenopausal women treated with S21400 150 microg per day, S21400 300 microg per day, or placebo in a double blind, randomized, controlled 2-year study. STUDY DESIGN: QoL was assessed based on the validated Women's Health Questionnaire designed for peri- and post-menopausal women. Three hundred and thirty-five healthy, early postmenopausal Danish women, 53 years of age in average, who completed one questionnaire at baseline and one under study treatment were included in the analysis set. All analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis. RESULTS: QoL improved significantly in both S21400 groups compared to placebo in the dimensions 'memory/concentration', 'vasomotor symptoms', 'sleep problems' and 'sexual behavior' (difference in mean change scores being respectively +7.9, +28.3, +9.9 and +10.8%, p < 0.001, between the S21400 300 microg and placebo group). There were no significant differences between actively treated groups and placebo in the dimensions 'anxiety/depressed mood' and 'well-being'. CONCLUSION: Pulsed estradiol therapy had a pronounced effect not only on vasomotor symptoms but also a significant and clinically relevant improvement in several other QoL dimensions.

Complementary and hormonal therapy for vasomotor symptom relief: a conservative clinical approach.

Vasomotor symptoms are the most common menopausal symptom experienced by women and the leading reason menopausal women seek health care advice. The recent shift towards a more conservative use of hormone therapy (HT) during menopause has prompted the need for treatment regimens to be individualized according to symptom severity. Our objective was to develop a new algorithm that enables practitioners to customize treatment regimens according to symptom severity. In order to develop a comprehensive treatment algorithm, we conducted a literature review and considered the findings from recently published treatment guidelines from around the world. We also evaluated the results of systematic reviews investigating the efficacy and safety of complementary and alternative medicines. We found a growing trend away from prescription HT in women with mild to moderate symptoms and an increasing trend toward lifestyle modification and the use of complementary and alternative medicines. On the basis of these findings, we have developed an algorithm that accounts for symptom severity. The algorithm presented here provides treatment options based on symptom severity and a comprehensive approach for integrating lifestyle modifications and complementary therapies with prescription treatment regimens.

Managing the menopause: British Menopause Society Council consensus statement on hormone replacement therapy.

The British Menopause Society Council aims to help health professionals inform and advise women about the menopause. This guidance regarding estrogen-based hormone replacement therapy (HRT), including tibolone, which is classified in the British National Formulary as HRT, responds to the results and analysis of the randomized Women's Health Initiative studies and the observational Million Women Study. Treatment choice should be based on up-to-date information and targeted to individual women's needs. HRT still offers the potential for benefit to outweigh harm, providing the appropriate regimen has been instigated in terms of dose, route and combination.

Medical student experience in surgery influences their career choices: a systematic review of the literature.

OBJECTIVES: Student experiences during surgical rotations may dictate interest in future surgical careers. The objective of this study was to systematically examine the effect of surgical experience (SE) on student attitudes toward surgical careers and also to identify variables influencing the educational value of SE. METHODS: A systematic review of the available literature was conducted by 2 independent researchers searching Medline, EMBASE, Google Scholar, and Cochrane databases, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses recommendations. Studies assessing SE during the students' surgical rotations were identified. The quality of the included studies was assessed using a validated quality index. Factors affecting student surgical rotation experience and perceptions of surgical careers were recorded. RESULTS: Overall, 204 studies were identified; 20 unique studies met the inclusion criteria with a median cohort size of 169 (interquartile range: 107-262) respondents. Most were cross-sectional surveys (n = 16/20) and administered to clinical students (n = 16/20). All studies investigating the effect of SE on career choices (n = 8) found that positive experiences during the surgical placement were associated with an increased interest in surgical careers. The operating theater experience was identified as a defining feature of overall SE. Involvement in operative procedures, a welcoming environment, and avoidance of syncopal events positively influenced the SE, particularly in those who actively sought educational opportunities. Study limitations included single-center and single-year cohort designs (70%) with the use of nonvalidated research tools (95%). CONCLUSIONS: A systematic review of the literature highlights a number of factors associated with a positive surgical rotation, which may lead to more students deciding to pursue a career in surgery. Understanding the factors that contribute to these decisions through multicenter studies using validated research tools may lead to more effective surgical rotations, ultimately improving the delivery of the surgical education.

Red clover isoflavones in practice: a clinician's view.

The subject of phytoestrogen use must be seen against the background of increasing controversy surrounding the role of hormone replacement therapy. Phytoestrogens such as those derived from red clover may help with hot flushes, which are a common menopausal complaint. Red clover isoflavones have more evidence base than most herbal medicinal products, although the literature is beset by difference in methodologies making direct comparison between studies difficult. There certainly does not appear to be any increased risk for women with breast cancer, who often suffer severely from sweats and flushes. There is currently insufficient evidence to recommend its use for bone protection in a group of women who are at high risk.

Managing the menopause - British Menopause Society Council consensus statement on hormone replacement therapy.

The British Menopause Society Council aims to aid health professionals to inform and advise women about the menopause. The oestrogen plus progestogen arm of the Women's Health Initiative was stopped in July 2002. This guidance regarding hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use responds to the results and analysis that have been published since then. Because there are few effective alternatives to HRT for vasomotor and urogenital symptoms, oestrogen-based treatments still have a major role. HRT is also most effective for prevention of osteoporosis. Unopposed oestrogens are contraindicated in women with an intact uterus, and hence a range of oestrogen and progestogen combinations, with differing routes of delivery, now exists under the title of "HRT". Treatment choice should be based on up to date information and targeted to individual women's needs. Hormone replacement still offers the potential for benefit to outweigh harm, providing the appropriate regimen has been instigated in terms of dose, route and combination.

Managing the menopause: BMS Council Consensus statement on HRT.

The British Menopause Society Council aims to help health professionals to inform and advise women about the menopause. The oestrogen plus progestogen arm of the Women's Health Initiative was stopped in July 2002. This guidance regarding hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use responds to the results and analysis that have been published since then, as well as the Million Women Study published in August 2003. Because there are few effective alternatives to HRT for vasomotor and urogenital symptoms, oestrogen-based treatments still have a major role. HRT is also most effective for the prevention of osteoporosis. Unopposed oestrogens are contraindicated in women with an intact uterus, and hence a range of oestrogen and progestogen combinations, with differing routes of delivery, now exists under the title of "HRT". Treatment choice should be based on up to date information and targeted to individual women's needs. Hormone replacement still offers the potential for benefit to outweigh harm, providing the appropriate regimen has been instigated in terms of dose, route and combination.

Should HRT be duration limited?

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) has received consistently bad press, despite re-analysis of previous data new studies and supporting Consensus Statements from leading national and international societies. Many women have been convinced by women's journals and the media not to even consider HRT as an option and, General Practitioners, still limit duration to 5 years or, will, arbitrarily, discontinue prescriptions in the early 50s. This article seeks to make sense of our current position. Previous and new evidence on the safety of HRT is reviewed. New data on the long-term consequences of non-treatment of women with Premature Ovarian Insufficiency (POI) is presented and the dichotomy of the older female workforce is explored. From this, a logical plan of management emerges.

Alternative and complementary therapies for the menopause.

Despite a re-evaluation of risks in recent years, hormone replacement therapy is still surrounded by controversy. Almost 30% of women in a recent survey sought a natural approach to combat climacteric symptoms. Nevertheless, a large proportion of patients felt that they wanted a good safety profile and strong evidence base for treatment. This article seeks to review the evidence supporting non-hormonal approaches to treatment. There is only conflicting evidence at best to support alpha-2 agonists, e.g. clonidine and limited evidence for dihydroepiandrosterone and natural progesterones. There is limited randomized controlled trial data for gabapentin, selective norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs), many of these studies being related to breast cancer patients. Of the herbal medicinal products, the largest evidence base rests with phytoestrogens. A Cochrane Database review looking at all types of phytoestrogens, e.g. red clover extracts, dietary soya and soya extracts concluded that there was no evidence to support improvement in climacteric symptoms and the meta-analysis of a 178 studies on soy products was inconsistent. Nevertheless, other studies disagree. Mammographic density is not affected by soy or phytoestrogen products and recent in vitro work shows only a weakly proliferative effect of soy isoflavone on breast cancer cells and evidence that soy isoflavone blocks the proliferative effect of estradiol on these cells. There are no studies looking at clinical outcome measures for cardiovascular disease but a number of studies looking at biochemical markers including arterial wall stiffness and apolipo protein B. Recent studies have also looked at the effects of red clover isoflavone on mood and depression, using specific depression rating scales. Finally, it is important to note that herbal medicinal products should not be used without caution. Some may produce quite marked side-effects in high doses and others can interact with pre-existing medication. A strategy for which patients are suitable for herbal medicinal products is reviewed.

Breast cancer patient stories project.

OBJECTIVE: It is estimated that there are almost half a million women living with or beyond a breast cancer diagnosis in the UK, often referred to as the breast cancer survivor population. We report on the setting up of a dedicated breast cancer and menopause symptoms service (BCMS), and present results from research undertaken with breast cancer survivors with the aim of obtaining their perspectives on the BCMS service. METHOD: An action-oriented approach incorporating improvement science methodology has been used to help develop and drive changes to support a high standard of NHS patient care delivery for women with breast cancer within the BCMS setting. Evaluation was undertaken of this innovative service using qualitative methodology, and included discussion within a focus group setting, patient consent to record discussion, followed by thematic analysis of transcription. RESULTS: Women who have survived breast cancer identified a need for specialist support to help improve their quality of life, which is also affected by menopause type symptomology. This support can be provided within the BCMS service setting. Our recommendations are that the BCMS service model is incorporated into any regional or national breast cancer patient pathway and service redesign work in place. CONCLUSIONS: Breast cancer survivors would support the setting up of a BCMS service, and would actively help raise awareness and market this service.

Exploring the breast cancer patient journey: do breast cancer survivors need menopause management support?

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer survivors can be expected to suffer from menopause symptoms with estrogen deprivation due to cancer treatments, in addition to natural menopause-related estrogen loss. OBJECTIVE: To gain an understanding of what support breast cancer patients have when they suffer from menopausal symptoms, and utilize findings to further inform National Health Service (NHS) care provision for breast cancer survivors. STUDY DESIGN: Qualitative study with focus group sessions targeting Caucasian and Asian women with breast cancer. METHODS: Patient stories, with women describing their breast cancer journey and speaking about support received for any menopausal symptoms. Thematic data analysis of transcription. RESULTS: Breast cancer patients were not sure if they had menopausal symptoms or whether this was due to their breast cancer condition or treatment. Patients had an attitude of acceptance of menopausal symptoms and reported trying to cope with these by themselves. CONCLUSIONS: This research identifies a need for more information that is culturally sensitive on managing menopause symptoms, both as side-effects of breast cancer treatments as well as for affect on quality of life during the survivorship phase. Our work also gives insight into cultural remedies used for hot flushes by Asian patients, which they consider as 'cooling' foods. Breast cancer patients want to know whether side-effects of cancer treatment persist long term and how these can be managed. There is a need for improved patient support within any new NHS service models that are developed along breast cancer patient pathways, and inclusion of personalized advice for menopause symptoms.

Cultural issues and the menopause.

Culture is a rather amorphous concept yet has a huge impact on our attitudes to diet, lifestyle, religion, sexuality and, via its influence on society, attitudes to education and health care. The midlife is a time of emotional and hormonal upheaval for any woman so defining the effects on culture on her response is challenging. Much depends on the value she places on her fertility and sexuality together with her own goals and aspirations, yet these are also influenced by culture. Very few traditional cultures survive in isolation for comparison. Shifting populations mean counter influences and transitional societies can be ambivalent. Emigrants and refugees transplanted into a different environment may struggle with the concept of acculturation. In time, all cultures evolve regardless. Finally, there may be biological and hormonal differences between races. This article seeks to place these different forces into context.

Sexuality and the menopause.

Sexuality is innate within all women to a greater or lesser extent, and is affected by a number of extrinsic factors that occur in the menopausal transition. Assessing hormone status is difficult as evidence exists that sex hormones may differ between ethnic groups, and that bio-assays may be insensitive at lower testosterone levels. Data are available on the prevalence of female sexual dysfunction, but results from cross-sectional studies differ from those of longitudinal studies. The original traditional models of human sexual response have been challenged, and new models have been defined which show more complex interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Definitions of sexual dysfunction have been redefined. There are a limited number of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of drugs to improve sexual function. These include sildenafil citrate, tibolone and hormone replacement therapy. Randomized controlled trials on testosterone replacement in naturally and/or surgically menopausal patients with female sexual dysfunction have been criticized for a high placebo response rate and short duration. This chapter seeks to put sexuality into perspective and to define both function and dysfunction.

Advances in managing pelvic floor disorders.

The last 10-12 years have seen an avalanche of changes in both the management of incontinence and genital prolapse. So many new procedures continue to appear that often the clinician is confused as to which approach to adopt. Complications are now being reported, creating a need to reappraise the situation.

Urogenital atrophy.

The British Menopause Society Council aims to aid health professionals to inform and advise women about postreproductive health. This guidance refers to the long-term condition of urogenital atrophy. Treatment choice should be based on up to date information and targeted to individual women's needs. Non-estrogen and estrogen-based treatments are discussed.