Assembly of plate-like nanoparticles in immiscible polymer blends--effect of the presence of a preferred liquid-liquid interface.

The assembly of lamellar (clay) nanoparticles in a blend of polystyrene (PS) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) with drop-matrix morphology is studied combining viscoelastic measurements and morphological analyses. A reference system based on pure PS is used to highlight the effect on the assembly process of the presence of liquid interfaces where the particles are inclined to gather. The filler content is varied in a wide range to cover all the possible structures, from isolated flocs up to space-spanning networks. The goal is to elucidate whether the particles govern the blend morphology or the structural evolutions of the fluids dictate the space arrangement of the filler. The PMMA drops anchor the lamellae frustrating their peculiar mobility in the polymer melt. On the other hand, the clay radically affects the blend morphology, inducing irregularly-shaped drops and drop clustering phenomena even in case of partial coverage of the drop surface. Above the critical filler content for the saturation of the polymer-polymer interface, a space-spanning particle network eventually builds up. Despite the embedding of the PMMA drops, such a superstructure exhibits the same features of those forming in homogeneous mediums, enabling the use of approaches conceived for systems with single-phase matrix. Compared to the latter, the percolation and fractal models reveal subtle and yet meaningful differences in terms of stress-bearing mechanisms and structure of the building blocks which constitute the network.

Accounting for misalignments and thermal fluctuations in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy experiments on membranes.

Several authors have exploited the ability of the fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to probe motion at the molecular level. In a couple of decades, all their efforts have allowed the application of this technique even to the diffusion measurement of cellular components. Nowadays, the fluorescence correlation spectroscopy is considered a standard tool to measure diffusion in cells both in vivo and in vitro. Unfortunately, while the interpretation and the set-up have been consolidated for 3D diffusion measurements (i.e. diffusion in an aqueous solution), the experiments carried out on flat elements, such as membranes, show unusually high relative errors. Furthermore, long tail correlations are generally detected and ascribed to diffusion anomalies. The 2D fluorescence correlation measurements have been interpreted under certain hypotheses, whereby the membrane is assumed to be perfectly flat, motionless and aligned with the optical axes. Here, we investigated the robustness of these hypotheses, trying to understand, in an elementary but not trivial way, how misalignments and thermal fluctuations affect the temporal correlation of the intensity fluctuation collected during measurements on membranes.

Exploring doxorubicin localization in eluting TiO2 nanotube arrays through fluorescence correlation spectroscopy analysis.

Drug elution properties of TiO(2) nanotube arrays have been largely investigated by means of solely macroscopic observations. Controversial elution performances have been reported so far and a clear comprehension of these phenomena is still missing as a consequence of a lack of molecular investigation methods. Here we propose a way to discern drug elution properties of nanotubes through the evaluation of drug localization by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) analysis. We verified this method upon doxorubicin elution from differently loaded TiO(2) nanotubes. Diverse elution profiles were obtained from nanotubes filled by soaking and wet vacuum impregnation methods. Impregnated nanotubes controlled drug diffusion up to thirty days, while soaked samples completed elution in seven days. FCS analysis of doxorubicin motion in loaded nanotubes clarified that more than 90% of drugs dwell preferentially in inter-nanotube spaces in soaked samples due to decorrelation in a 2D fashion, while a 97% fraction of molecules showed 1D mobility ascribable to displacements along the nanotube vertical axis of wet vacuum impregnated nanotubes. The diverse drug localizations inferred from FCS measurements, together with distinct drug-surface interaction strengths resulting from diverse drug filling techniques, could explain the variability in elution kinetics.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy in semiadhesive wall proximity.

With examination of diffusion in heterogeneous media through fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, the temporal correlation of the intensity signal shows a long correlation tail and the characteristic diffusion time results are no longer easy to determine. Excluded volume and sticking effects have been proposed to justify such deviations from the standard behavior since all contribute and lead to anomalous diffusion mechanisms . Usually, the anomalous coefficient embodies all the effects of environmental heterogeneity providing too general explanations for the exotic diffusion recorded. Here, we investigated whether the reason of anomalies could be related to a lack of an adequate interpretative model for heterogeneous systems and how the presence of obstacles on the detection volume length scale could affect fluorescence correlation spectroscopy experiments. We report an original modeling of the autocorrelation function where fluorophores experience reflection or adsorption at a wall placed at distances comparable with the detection volume size. We successfully discriminate between steric and adhesion effects through the analysis of long time correlations and evaluate the adhesion strength through the evaluation of probability of being adsorbed and persistence time at the wall on reference data. The proposed model can be readily adopted to gain a better understanding of intracellular and nanoconfined diffusion opening the way for a more rational analysis of the diffusion mechanism in heterogeneous systems and further developing biological and biomedical applications.

A closed form for fluorescence correlation spectroscopy experiments in submicrometer structures.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a powerful technique for measuring low concentrations of fluorescent molecules and their diffusion coefficients in an open detection volume. However, in several practical cases, when FCS measurements are carried out in small compartments like microchannels, neglecting boundary effects could lead to erroneous results. Here, a close form solution is proposed to explicitly account for the presence of walls located at a distance comparable with the characteristic detection volume lengths. We derive a one-dimensional diffusion constrained model and then generalize the solution to the two- and the three-dimensional constrained cases. We further indicate within which limits the standard autocorrelation function (ACF) model gives reliable results in microconfinement. Our model relies just on the assumption of elastic hits at the system walls and succeeds in describing the ACF of fluorescent probes confined along one direction. Through the analysis of FCS experimental data, we are able to predict the correct shape of the ACF in channels of micrometric and submicrometric width and measure the extent of lateral confinement. In addition, it permits the investigation of microstructured material features such as cages and cavities having dimensions on the micrometric range. On the basis of the proposed model, we also show in which conditions confinement could generate an apparent time dependent probe mobility, thus allowing a proper interpretation of the transport process taking place in submicrometric compartments.

Molecular sensing by nanoporous crystalline polymers.

Chemical sensors are generally based on the integration of suitable sensitive layers and transducing mechanisms. Although inorganic porous materials can be effective, there is significant interest in the use of polymeric materials because of their easy fabrication process, lower costs and mechanical flexibility. However, porous polymeric absorbents are generally amorphous and hence present poor molecular selectivity and undesired changes of mechanical properties as a consequence of large analyte uptake. In this contribution the structure, properties and some possible applications of sensing polymeric films based on nanoporous crystalline phases, which exhibit all identical nanopores, will be reviewed. The main advantages of crystalline nanoporous polymeric materials with respect to their amorphous counterparts are, besides a higher selectivity, the ability to maintain their physical state as well as geometry, even after large guest uptake (up to 10-15 wt%), and the possibility to control guest diffusivity by controlling the orientation of the host polymeric crystalline phase. The final section of the review also describes the ability of suitable polymeric films to act as chirality sensors, i.e., to sense and memorize the presence of non-racemic volatile organic compounds.