A Poly(A) Ribonuclease Controls the Cellotriose-Based Interaction between Piriformospora indica and Its Host Arabidopsis.

Piriformospora indica, an endophytic root-colonizing fungus, efficiently promotes plant growth and induces resistance to abiotic stress and biotic diseases. P. indica fungal cell wall extract induces cytoplasmic calcium elevation in host plant roots. Here, we show that cellotriose (CT) is an elicitor-active cell wall moiety released by P. indica into the medium. CT induces a mild defense-like response, including the production of reactive oxygen species, changes in membrane potential, and the expression of genes involved in growth regulation and root development. CT-based cytoplasmic calcium elevation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) roots does not require the BAK1 coreceptor or the putative Ca2+ channels TPC1, GLR3.3, GLR2.4, and GLR2.5 and operates synergistically with the elicitor chitin. We identified an ethyl methanesulfonate-induced mutant (cytoplasmiccalcium elevation mutant) impaired in the response to CT and various other cellooligomers (n = 2-7), but not to chitooligomers (n = 4-8), in roots. The mutant contains a single nucleotide exchange in the gene encoding a poly(A) ribonuclease (AtPARN; At1g55870) that degrades the poly(A) tails of specific mRNAs. The wild-type PARN cDNA, expressed under the control of a 35S promoter, complements the mutant phenotype. Our identification of cellotriose as a novel chemical mediator casts light on the complex P. indica-plant mutualistic relationship.

A Chinese cabbage (Brassica campetris subsp. Chinensis) τ-type glutathione-S-transferase stimulates Arabidopsis development and primes against abiotic and biotic stress.

The beneficial root-colonizing fungus Piriformospora indica stimulates root development of Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris subsp. Chinensis) and this is accompanied by the up-regulation of a τ-class glutathione (GSH)-S-transferase gene (BcGSTU) (Lee et al. 2011) in the roots. BcGSTU expression is further promoted by osmotic (salt and PEG) and heat stress. Ectopic expression of BcGSTU in Arabidopsis under the control of the 35S promoter results in the promotion of root and shoot growth as well as better performance of the plants under abiotic (150 mM NaCl, PEG, 42 °C) and biotic (Alternaria brassicae infection) stresses. Higher levels of glutathione, auxin and stress-related (salicylic and jasmonic acid) phytohormones as well as changes in the gene expression profile result in better performance of the BcGSTU expressors upon exposure to stress. Simultaneously the plants are primed against upcoming stresses. We propose that BcGSTU is a target of P. indica in Chinese cabbage roots because the enzyme participates in balancing growth and stress responses, depending on the equilibrium of the symbiotic interaction. A comparable function of BcGST in transgenic Arabidopsis makes the enzyme a valuable tool for agricultural applications.

The interaction of Arabidopsis with Piriformospora indica shifts from initial transient stress induced by fungus-released chemical mediators to a mutualistic interaction after physical contact of the two symbionts.

BACKGROUND: Piriformospora indica, an endophytic fungus of Sebacinales, colonizes the roots of many plant species including Arabidopsis thaliana. The symbiotic interaction promotes plant performance, growth and resistance/tolerance against abiotic and biotic stress. RESULTS: We demonstrate that exudated compounds from the fungus activate stress and defense responses in the Arabidopsis roots and shoots before the two partners are in physical contact. They induce stomata closure, stimulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, stress-related phytohormone accumulation and activate defense and stress genes in the roots and/or shoots. Once a physical contact is established, the stomata re-open, ROS and phytohormone levels decline, and the number and expression level of defense/stress-related genes decreases. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that exudated compounds from P. indica induce stress and defense responses in the host. Root colonization results in the down-regulation of defense responses and the activation of genes involved in promoting plant growth, metabolism and performance.

WRKY6 restricts Piriformospora indica-stimulated and phosphate-induced root development in Arabidopsis.

BACKGROUND: Arabidopsis root growth is stimulated by Piriformospora indica, phosphate limitation and inactivation of the WRKY6 transcription factor. Combinations of these factors induce unexpected alterations in root and shoot growth, root architecture and root gene expression profiles. RESULTS: The results demonstrate that P. indica promotes phosphate uptake and root development under Pi limitation in wrky6 mutant. This is associated with the stimulation of PHOSPHATE1 expression and ethylene production. Expression profiles from the roots of wrky6 seedlings identified genes involved in hormone metabolism, transport, meristem, cell and plastid proliferation, and growth regulation. 25 miRNAs were also up-regulated in these roots. We generated and discuss here a list of common genes which are regulated in growing roots and which are common to all three growth stimuli investigated in this study. CONCLUSION: Since root development of wrky6 plants exposed to P. indica under phosphate limitation is strongly promoted, we propose that common genes which respond to all three growth stimuli are central for the control of root growth and architecture. They can be tested for optimizing root growth in model and agricultural plants.

The beneficial fungus Piriformospora indica protects Arabidopsis from Verticillium dahliae infection by downregulation plant defense responses.

BACKGROUND: Verticillium dahliae (Vd) is a soil-borne vascular pathogen which causes severe wilt symptoms in a wide range of plants. The microsclerotia produced by the pathogen survive in soil for more than 15 years. RESULTS: Here we demonstrate that an exudate preparation induces cytoplasmic calcium elevation in Arabidopsis roots, and the disease development requires the ethylene-activated transcription factor EIN3. Furthermore, the beneficial endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica (Pi) significantly reduced Vd-mediated disease development in Arabidopsis. Pi inhibited the growth of Vd in a dual culture on PDA agar plates and pretreatment of Arabidopsis roots with Pi protected plants from Vd infection. The Pi-pretreated plants grew better after Vd infection and the production of Vd microsclerotia was dramatically reduced, all without activating stress hormones and defense genes in the host. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that Pi is an efficient biocontrol agent that protects Arabidopsis from Vd infection. Our data demonstrate that Vd growth is restricted in the presence of Pi and the additional signals from Pi must participate in the regulation of the immune response against Vd.

The OXI1 kinase pathway mediates Piriformospora indica-induced growth promotion in Arabidopsis.

Piriformospora indica is an endophytic fungus that colonizes roots of many plant species and promotes growth and resistance to certain plant pathogens. Despite its potential use in agriculture, little is known on the molecular basis of this beneficial plant-fungal interaction. In a genetic screen for plants, which do not show a P. indica- induced growth response, we isolated an Arabidopsis mutant in the OXI1 (Oxidative Signal Inducible1) gene. OXI1 has been characterized as a protein kinase which plays a role in pathogen response and is regulated by H2O2 and PDK1 (3-PHOSPHOINOSITIDE-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE1). A genetic analysis showed that double mutants of the two closely related PDK1.1 and PDK1.2 genes are defective in the growth response to P. indica. While OXI1 and PDK1 gene expression is upregulated in P. indica-colonized roots, defense genes are downregulated, indicating that the fungus suppresses plant defense reactions. PDK1 is activated by phosphatidic acid (PA) and P. indica triggers PA synthesis in Arabidopsis plants. Under beneficial co-cultivation conditions, H2O2 formation is even reduced by the fungus. Importantly, phospholipase D (PLD)α1 or PLDδ mutants, which are impaired in PA synthesis do not show growth promotion in response to fungal infection. These data establish that the P. indica-stimulated growth response is mediated by a pathway consisting of the PLD-PDK1-OXI1 cascade.

Indole-3-acetaldoxime-derived compounds restrict root colonization in the beneficial interaction between Arabidopsis roots and the endophyte Piriformospora indica.

The growth-promoting and root-colonizing endophyte Piriformospora indica induces camalexin and the expression of CYP79B2, CYP79B3, CYP71A13, PAD3, and WRKY33 required for the synthesis of indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx)-derived compounds in the roots of Arabidopsis seedlings. Upregulation of the mRNA levels by P. indica requires cytoplasmic calcium elevation and mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 but not root-hair-deficient 2, radical oxygen production, or the 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1/oxidative signal-inducible 1 pathway. Because P. indica-mediated growth promotion is impaired in cyp79B2 cyp79B3 seedlings, while pad3 seedlings-which do not accumulate camalexin-still respond to the fungus, IAOx-derived compounds other than camalexin (e.g., indole glucosinolates) are required during early phases of the beneficial interaction. The roots of cyp79B2 cyp79B3 seedlings are more colonized than wild-type roots, and upregulation of the defense genes pathogenesis-related (PR)-1, PR-3, PDF1.2, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and germin indicates that the mutant responds to the lack of IAOx-derived compounds by activating other defense processes. After 6 weeks on soil, defense genes are no longer upregulated in wild-type, cyp79B2 cyp79B3, and pad3 roots. This results in uncontrolled fungal growth in the mutant roots and reduced performance of the mutants. We propose that a long-term harmony between the two symbionts requires restriction of root colonization by IAOx-derived compounds.

Expression of BvGLP-1 encoding a germin-like protein from sugar beet in Arabidopsis thaliana leads to resistance against phytopathogenic fungi.

Nematode (Heterodera schachtii) resistance in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) is controlled by a single dominant resistance gene, Hs1(pro-1). BvGLP-1 was cloned from resistant sugar beet. The BvGLP-1 messenger (m)RNA is highly upregulated in the resistant plants after nematode infection, suggesting its role in the Hs1(pro-1) mediated resistance. BvGLP-1 exhibits sequence homology to a set of plant germin-like proteins (GLP), from which several have proved to be functional in plant basal or defense resistance against fungal pathogens. To test whether BvGLP-1 is also involved in the plant-fungus interaction, we transferred BvGLP-1 into Arabidopsis and challenged the transgenic plants with the pathogenic fungi Verticillium longisporum and Rhizoctonia solani as well as with the beneficial endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica. The expression of BvGLP-1 in Arabidopsis elevated the H(2)O(2) content and conferred significant resistance to V. longisporum and R. solani but did not affect the beneficial interaction with P. indica in seedlings. Microscopic observations revealed a dramatic reduction in the amount of hyphae of the pathogenic fungi on the root surface as well as of fungal mycelium developed inside the roots of transgenic Arabidopsis compared with wild-type plants. Molecular analysis demonstrated that the BvGLP-1 expression in Arabidopsis constitutively activates the expression of a subset of plant defense-related proteins such as PR-1 to PR-4 and PDF1.2 but not PDF2.1 and PDF2.3. In contrast, the PDF2.1 mRNA level was downregulated. These data suggest an important role of BvGLP-1 in establishment of plant defense responses, which follow specific signaling routes that diverge from those induced by the beneficial fungus.

Ethylene signalling and ethylene-targeted transcription factors are required to balance beneficial and nonbeneficial traits in the symbiosis between the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica and Arabidopsis thaliana.

*The endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica colonizes the roots of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and promotes its growth and seed production. The fungus can be cultivated in axenic culture without a host, and therefore this is an excellent system to investigate plant-fungus symbiosis. *The growth of etr1, ein2 and ein3/eil1 mutant plants was not promoted or even inhibited by the fungus; the plants produced less seeds and the roots were more colonized compared with the wild-type. This correlates with a mild activation of defence responses. The overexpression of ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR1 constitutively activated defence responses, strongly reduced root colonization and abolished the benefits for the plants. *Piriformospora indica-mediated stimulation of growth and seed yield was not affected by jasmonic acid, and jasmonic acid-responsive promoter beta-glucuronidase gene constructs did not respond to the fungus in Arabidopsis roots. *We propose that ethylene signalling components and ethylene-targeted transcription factors are required to balance beneficial and nonbeneficial traits in the symbiosis. The results show that the restriction of fungal growth by ethylene signalling components is required for the beneficial interaction between the two symbionts.

PYK10, a beta-glucosidase located in the endoplasmatic reticulum, is crucial for the beneficial interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica.

Piriformospora indica, an endophyte of the Sebacinaceae family, promotes growth and seed production of many plant species, including Arabidopsis. Growth of a T-DNA insertion line in PYK10 is not promoted and the plants do not produce more seeds in the presence of P. indica, although their roots are more colonized by the fungus than wild-type roots. Overexpression of PYK10 mRNA did not affect root colonization and the response to the fungus. PYK10 codes for a root- and hypocotyl-specific beta-glucosidase/myrosinase, which is implicated to be involved in plant defences against herbivores and pathogens. Expression of PYK10 is activated by the basic helix-loop-helix domain containing transcription factor NAI1, and two Arabidopsis lines with mutations in the NAI1 gene show the same response to P. indica as the PYK10 insertion line. PYK10 transcript and PYK10 protein levels are severely reduced in a NAI1 mutant, indicating that PYK10 and not the transcription factor NAI1 is responsible for the response to the fungus. In wild-type roots, the message level for a leucine-rich repeat protein LRR1, but not for plant defensin 1.2 (PDF1.2), is upregulated in the presence of P. indica. In contrast, in lines with reduced PYK10 levels the PDF1.2, but not LRR1, message level is upregulated in the presence of the fungus. We propose that PYK10 restricts root colonization by P. indica, which results in the repression of defence responses and the upregulation of responses leading to a mutualistic interaction between the two symbiotic partners.

The root-colonizing endophyte Pirifomospora indica confers drought tolerance in Arabidopsis by stimulating the expression of drought stress-related genes in leaves.

Piriformospora indica is an endophytic fungus that colonizes the roots of many plant species, including Arabidopsis. We exposed 18-day-old Arabidopsis seedlings, which were either cocultivated with the fungus or mock-treated for the last 9 days, to mild drought stress for 84 h. During the first 36 to 48 h, seedlings cocultivated with the fungus continued to grow, while the uncolonized controls did not. This results in a threefold difference in the fresh weight and a more than twofold difference in the chlorophyll content. The photosynthetic efficiency was only slightly reduced in the colonized (F variable/F maximum [Fv/Fm] at t(0 h) = 0.82 and t(36 h) = 0.79) and was severely impaired in the uncolonized (Fv/Fm at t(0 h) = 0.81 and (t)(36 h) = 0.49) seedlings, which also showed symptoms of withering. When seedlings exposed to drought stress for 72 or 84 h were transferred to soil, 10% (72 h) and none (84 h) of uncolonized seedlings reached the flowering stage and produced seeds, while 59% (72 h) and 47% (84 h) of the colonized seedlings flowered and produced seeds. After exposure to drought stress for 3 h, the message levels for RESPONSE TO DEHYDRATION 29A, EARLY RESPONSE TO DEHYDRATION1, ANAC072, DEHYDRATION-RESPONSE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN2A, SALT-, AND DROUGHT-INDUCED RING FINGER1, phospholipase Ddelta, CALCINEURIN B-LIKE PROTEIN (CBL)1, CBL-INTERACTING PROTEIN KINASE3, and the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) were upregulated in the leaves of P. indica-colonized seedlings. Uncolonized seedlings responded 3 to 6 h later, and the message levels increased much less. We identified an Arabidopsis ethylmethane-sulfonate mutant that is less resistant to drought stress and in which the stress-related genes were not upregulated in the presence of P. indica. Thus, P. indica confers drought-stress tolerance to Arabidopsis, and this is associated with the priming of the expression of a quite diverse set of stress-related genes in the leaves. Transfer to soil was again associated with a faster and stronger upregulation of the message levels for phospholipase Ddelta, CBL1, and HAT in P. indica-colonized seedlings, indicating that this response might also contribute to better survival on soil.

Alternaria Brassicae Induces Systemic Jasmonate Responses in Arabidopsis Which Travel to Neighboring Plants via a Piriformsopora Indica Hyphal Network and Activate Abscisic Acid Responses.

Stress information received by a particular local plant tissue is transferred to other tissues and neighboring plants, but how the information travels is not well understood. Application of Alternaria Brassicae spores to Arabidopsis leaves or roots stimulates local accumulation of jasmonic acid (JA), the expression of JA-responsive genes, as well as of NITRATE TRANSPORTER (NRT)2.5 and REDOX RESPONSIVE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR1 (RRTF1). Infection information is systemically spread over the entire seedling and propagates radially from infected to non-infected leaves, axially from leaves to roots, and vice versa. The local and systemic NRT2.5 responses are reduced in the jar1 mutant, and the RRTF1 response in the rbohD mutant. Information about A. brassicae infection travels slowly to uninfected neighboring plants via a Piriformospora Indica hyphal network, where NRT2.5 and RRTF1 are up-regulated. The systemic A. brassicae-induced JA response in infected plants is converted to an abscisic acid (ABA) response in the neighboring plant where ABA and ABA-responsive genes are induced. We propose that the local threat information induced by A. brassicae infection is spread over the entire plant and transferred to neighboring plants via a P. indica hyphal network. The JA-specific response is converted to a general ABA-mediated stress response in the neighboring plant.

Piriformospora indica Reprograms Gene Expression in Arabidopsis Phosphate Metabolism Mutants But Does Not Compensate for Phosphate Limitation.

Piriformospora indica is an endophytic fungus of Sebacinaceae which colonizes the roots of many plant species and confers benefits to the hosts. We demonstrate that approximately 75% of the genes, which respond to P. indica in Arabidopsis roots, differ among seedlings grown on normal phosphate (Pi) or Pi limitation conditions, and among wild-type and the wrky6 mutant impaired in the regulation of the Pi metabolism. Mapman analyses suggest that the fungus activates different signaling, transport, metabolic and developmental programs in the roots of wild-type and wrky6 seedlings under normal and low Pi conditions. Under low Pi, P. indica promotes growth and Pi uptake of wild-type seedlings, and the stimulatory effects are identical for mutants impaired in the PHOSPHATE TRANSPORTERS1;1, -1;2 and -1;4. The data suggest that the fungus does not stimulate Pi uptake, but adapts the expression profiles to Pi limitation in Pi metabolism mutants.

Stress promotes Arabidopsis - Piriformospora indica interaction.

The endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica colonizes Arabidopsis thaliana roots and promotes plant performance, growth and resistance/tolerance against abiotic and biotic stress. Here we demonstrate that the benefits for the plant increase when the two partners are co-cultivated under stress (limited access to nutrient, exposure to heavy metals and salt, light and osmotic stress, pathogen infection). Moreover, physical contact between P. indica and Arabidopsis roots is necessary for optimal growth promotion, and chemical communication cannot replace the physical contact. Lower nutrient availability down-regulates and higher nutrient availability up-regulates the plant defense system including the expression of pathogenesis-related genes in roots. High light, osmotic and salt stresses support the beneficial interaction between the plant and the fungus. P. indica reduces stomata closure and H2O2 production after Alternaria brassicae infection in leaves and suppresses the defense-related accumulation of the phytohormone jasmonic acid. Thus, shifting the growth conditions toward a stress promotes the mutualistic interaction, while optimal supply with nutrients or low stress diminishes the benefits for the plant in the symbiosis.

Microarray analyses during early and later stages of the Arabidopsis/Piriformospora indica interaction.

Colonization of the roots of different plant species by Piriformospora indica results in better plant performance and biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. An increase of the biomass and seed yield is other beneficial effect of P. indica for the host plants. The interaction of P. indica with Arabidopsis thaliana roots is a unique model system to study symbiotic relationships. We describe a co-cultivation system which allows us to investigate the effects of fungal exudates on the root transcriptome before and after the establishment of a physical contact, and during early phases of root colonization. We present a detailed protocol which facilitates easy reproduction of the results (NCBI GEO accession number GSE58771) published by Vahabi et al. (2015) in BMC Plant Biology [1].

High REDOX RESPONSIVE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR1 Levels Result in Accumulation of Reactive Oxygen Species in Arabidopsis thaliana Shoots and Roots.

Redox Responsive Transcription Factor1 (RRTF1) in Arabidopsis is rapidly and transiently upregulated by H2O2, as well as biotic- and abiotic-induced redox signals. RRTF1 is highly conserved in angiosperms, but its physiological role remains elusive. Here we show that inactivation of RRTF1 restricts and overexpression promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in response to stress. Transgenic lines overexpressing RRTF1 are impaired in root and shoot development, light sensitive, and susceptible to Alternaria brassicae infection. These symptoms are diminished by the beneficial root endophyte Piriformospora indica, which reduces ROS accumulation locally in roots and systemically in shoots, and by antioxidants and ROS inhibitors that scavenge ROS. More than 800 genes were detected in mature leaves and seedlings of transgenic lines overexpressing RRTF1; ∼ 40% of them have stress-, redox-, ROS-regulated-, ROS-scavenging-, defense-, cell death- and senescence-related functions. Bioinformatic analyses and in vitro DNA binding assays demonstrate that RRTF1 binds to GCC-box-like sequences in the promoter of RRTF1-responsive genes. Upregulation of RRTF1 by stress stimuli and H2O2 requires WRKY18/40/60. RRTF1 is co-regulated with the phylogenetically related RAP2.6, which contains a GCC-box-like sequence in its promoter, but transgenic lines overexpressing RAP2.6 do not accumulate higher ROS levels. RRTF1 also stimulates systemic ROS accumulation in distal non-stressed leaves. We conclude that the elevated levels of the highly conserved RRTF1 induce ROS accumulation in response to ROS and ROS-producing abiotic and biotic stress signals.

Chloroplast redox control of nuclear gene expression--a new class of plastid signals in interorganellar communication.

Chloroplasts are genetically semiautonomous organelles that contain their own subset of 100-120 genes coding for chloroplast proteins, tRNAs, and rRNAs. However, the great majority of the chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus and must be imported into the organelle after their translation in the cytosol. This arrangement requires a high degree of coordination between the gene expression machineries in chloroplasts and nucleus, which is achieved by a permanent exchange of information between both compartments. The existence of such coordinating signals has long been known; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms and signaling routes are not understood. The present data indicate that the expression of nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins is coupled to the functional state of the chloroplasts. Photosynthesis, which is the major function of chloroplasts, plays a crucial role in this context. Changes in the reduction/oxidation (redox) state of components of the photosynthetic machinery act as signals, which regulate the expression of chloroplast proteins in both chloroplasts and nucleus and help to coordinate the expression both in compartments. Recent advances in understanding chloroplast redox regulation of nuclear gene expression are summarized, and the importance for intracellular signaling is discussed.

Growth of Arabidopsis seedlings on high fungal doses of Piriformospora indica has little effect on plant performance, stress, and defense gene expression in spite of elevated jasmonic acid and jasmonic acid-isoleucine levels in the roots.

The endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica colonizes the roots of many plant species including Arabidopsis and promotes their performance, biomass, and seed production as well as resistance against biotic and abiotic stress. Imbalances in the symbiotic interaction such as uncontrolled fungal growth result in the loss of benefits for the plants and activation of defense responses against the microbe. We exposed Arabidopsis seedlings to a dense hyphal lawn of P. indica. The seedlings continue to grow, accumulate normal amounts of chlorophyll, and the photosynthetic parameters demonstrate that they perform well. In spite of high fungal doses around the roots, the fungal material inside the roots was not significantly higher when compared with roots that live in a beneficial symbiosis with P. indica. Fifteen defense- and stress-related genes including PR2, PR3, PAL2, and ERF1 are only moderately upregulated in the roots on the fungal lawn, and the seedlings did not accumulate H2O2/radical oxygen species. However, accumulation of anthocyanin in P. indica-exposed seedlings indicates stress symptoms. Furthermore, the jasmonic acid (JA) and jasmonic acid-isoleucine (JA-Ile) levels were increased in the roots, and consequently PDF1.2 and a newly characterized gene for a 2-oxoglurate and Fe2+ -dependent oxygenase were upregulated more than 7-fold on the dense fungal lawn, in a JAR1- and EIN3-dependent manner. We conclude that growth of A. thaliana seedlings on high fungal doses of P. indica has little effect on the overall performance of the plants although elevated JA and JA-Ile levels in the roots induce a mild stress or defense response.

The root endophyte fungus Piriformospora indica leads to early flowering, higher biomass and altered secondary metabolites of the medicinal plant, Coleus forskohlii.

This study was undertaken to investigate the influence of plant probiotic fungus Piriformospora indica on the medicinal plant C. forskohlii. Interaction of the C. forskohlii with the root endophyte P. indica under field conditions, results in an overall increase in aerial biomass, chlorophyll contents and phosphorus acquisition. The fungus also promoted inflorescence development, consequently the amount of p-cymene in the inflorescence increased. Growth of the root thickness was reduced in P. indica treated plants as they became fibrous, but developed more lateral roots. Because of the smaller root biomass, the content of forskolin was decreased. The symbiotic interaction of C. forskohlii with P. indica under field conditions promoted biomass production of the aerial parts of the plant including flower development. The plant aerial parts are important source of metabolites for medicinal application. Therefore we suggest that the use of the root endophyte fungus P. indica in sustainable agriculture will enhance the medicinally important chemical production.

Siroheme: an essential component for life on earth.

Life on earth is dependent on sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N). In plants, the second step in the reduction of sulphate and nitrate are mediated by the enzymes sulphite and nitrite reductases, which contain the iron (Fe)-containing siroheme as a cofactor. It is synthesized from the tetrapyrrole primogenitor uroporphyrinogen III in the plastids via three enzymatic reactions, methylation, oxidation and ferrochelatation. Without siroheme biosynthesis, there would be no life on earth. Limitations in siroheme should have an enormous effect on the S- and N-metabolism, plant growth, development, fitness and reproduction, biotic and abiotic stresses including growth under S, N and Fe limitations, and the response to pathogens and beneficial interaction partners. Furthermore, the vast majority of redox-reactions in plants depend on S-components, and S-containing compounds are also involved in the detoxification of heavy metals and other chemical toxins. Disturbance of siroheme biosynthesis may cause the accumulation of light-sensitive intermediates and reactive oxygen species, which are harmful, or they can function as signaling molecules and participate in interorganellar signaling processes. This review highlights the role of siroheme in these scenarios.