Aluminum Thin Film Nanostructure Traces in Pediatric EEG Net for MRI and CT Artifact Reduction.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring are essential in the clinical management of neonatal seizures. EEG electrodes, however, can significantly degrade the image quality of both MRI and CT due to substantial metallic artifacts and distortions. Thus, we developed a novel thin film trace EEG net ("NeoNet") for improved MRI and CT image quality without compromising the EEG signal quality. The aluminum thin film traces were fabricated with an ultra-high-aspect ratio (up to 17,000:1, with dimensions 30 nm × 50.8 cm × 100 µm), resulting in a low density for reducing CT artifacts and a low conductivity for reducing MRI artifacts. We also used numerical simulation to investigate the effects of EEG nets on the B1 transmit field distortion in 3 T MRI. Specifically, the simulations predicted a 65% and 138% B1 transmit field distortion higher for the commercially available copper-based EEG net ("CuNet", with and without current limiting resistors, respectively) than with NeoNet. Additionally, two board-certified neuroradiologists, blinded to the presence or absence of NeoNet, compared the image quality of MRI images obtained in an adult and two children with and without the NeoNet device and found no significant difference in the degree of artifact or image distortion. Additionally, the use of NeoNet did not cause either: (i) CT scan artifacts or (ii) impact the quality of EEG recording. Finally, MRI safety testing confirmed a maximum temperature rise associated with the NeoNet device in a child head-phantom to be 0.84 °C after 30 min of high-power scanning, which is within the acceptance criteria for the temperature for 1 h of normal operating mode scanning as per the FDA guidelines. Therefore, the proposed NeoNet device has the potential to allow for concurrent EEG acquisition and MRI or CT scanning without significant image artifacts, facilitating clinical care and EEG/fMRI pediatric research.

Simultaneous EEG-fMRI: What Have We Learned and What Does the Future Hold?

Simultaneous EEG-fMRI has developed into a mature measurement technique in the past 25 years. During this time considerable technical and analytical advances have been made, enabling valuable scientific contributions to a range of research fields. This review will begin with an introduction to the measurement principles involved in EEG and fMRI and the advantages of combining these methods. The challenges faced when combining the two techniques will then be considered. An overview of the leading application fields where EEG-fMRI has made a significant contribution to the scientific literature and emerging applications in EEG-fMRI research trends is then presented.

The relationship between BOLD fMRI response and the underlying white matter as measured by fractional anisotropy (FA): A systematic review.

Despite the relationship between brain structure and function being of fundamental interest in cognitive neuroscience, the relationship between the brain's white matter, measured using fractional anisotropy (FA), and the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response is poorly understood. A systematic review of literature investigating the association between FA and fMRI BOLD response was conducted following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. The PubMed and Web of Knowledge databases were searched up until 22.04.2016 using a predetermined set of search criteria. The search identified 363 papers, 28 of which met the specified inclusion criteria. Positive relationships were mainly observed in studies investigating the primary sensory and motor systems and in resting state data. Both positive and negative relationships were seen in studies using cognitive tasks. This systematic review suggests that there is a relationship between FA and the fMRI BOLD response and that the relationship is task and region dependent. Behavioural and/or clinical variables were shown to be essential in interpreting the relationships between imaging measures. The results highlight the heterogeneity in the methods used across papers in terms of fMRI task, population investigated and data analysis techniques. Further investigation and replication of current findings are required before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

Attention to detail: why considering task demands is essential for single-trial analysis of BOLD correlates of the visual P1 and N1.

Single-trial fluctuations in the EEG signal have been shown to temporally correlate with the fMRI BOLD response and are valuable for modeling trial-to-trial fluctuations in responses. The P1 and N1 components of the visual ERP are sensitive to different attentional modulations, suggesting that different aspects of stimulus processing can be modeled with these ERP parameters. As such, different patterns of BOLD covariation for P1 and N1 informed regressors would be expected; however, current findings are equivocal. We investigate the effects of variations in attention on P1 and N1 informed BOLD activation in a visual oddball task. Simultaneous EEG-fMRI data were recorded from 13 healthy participants during three conditions of a visual oddball task: Passive, Count, and Respond. We show that the P1 and N1 components of the visual ERP can be used in the integration-by-prediction method of EEG-fMRI data integration to highlight brain regions related to target detection and response production. Our data suggest that the P1 component of the ERP reflects changes in sensory encoding of stimulus features and is more informative for the Passive and Count conditions. The N1, on the other hand, was more informative for the Respond condition, suggesting that it can be used to model the processing of stimulus, meaning specifically discriminating one type of stimulus from another, and processes involved in integrating sensory information with response selection. Our results show that an understanding of the underlying electrophysiology is necessary for a thorough interpretation of EEG-informed fMRI analysis.

Do EEG paradigms work in fMRI? Varying task demands in the visual oddball paradigm: Implications for task design and results interpretation.

We investigate the effects of variations in response requirements on BOLD activation in a visual oddball task and consider implications for fMRI task designs. Sixteen healthy subjects completed 3 runs of a visual oddball task: passive, count and respond. Besides expected activation patterns during passive viewing, we identified joint activations, but more importantly crucial differences between the count and respond versions of the task. Middle frontal gyrus activation was seen in the respond but not the count condition suggesting that this region is associated with action execution rather than the decision-making aspect of the task. In addition, activation observed in the central opercular cortex and parietal operculum in the respond (but not count) condition is likely to reflect integration of the sensory, decision and response processes. We also observed activation in the supplementary motor area (SMA) during count as well as respond. Since the count condition requires no motor planning or response our data provide evidence for an SMA involvement in decision-making. Our study clearly shows that the count and respond versions of the visual oddball task result in different patterns of BOLD activation that could both be attributed to 'target detection' if information on the respective other condition was not available. We also show that considering the elements of a complex task is crucial when transferring it from one imaging modality to another and that a motor response is not always necessary in fMRI studies when the task has been set up appropriately.

Parallel imaging acceleration of EPIK for reduced image distortions in fMRI.

EPI with Keyhole (EPIK) is a hybrid imaging technique used to improve the performance of EPI in dynamic MRI applications. The method had been previously validated at 1.5 T with both phantom and in vivo images; EPIK was able to provide a higher temporal resolution and less image distortions than single-shot EPI. The data presented here demonstrate that the performance of EPIK can be further improved by accelerating it with the parallel imaging. For this work, this combination was tested at 3 T. After initial evaluation using phantom images, use of the method in functional MRI was verified with visual fMRI measurements as well as MRI simulation results. The results showed that accelerated EPIK had increased temporal resolution with favorable robustness against susceptibility artifacts when compared with EPI or non-accelerated EPIK.

EEG acquisition in ultra-high static magnetic fields up to 9.4 T.

The simultaneous acquisition of electroencephalographic (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data has gained momentum in recent years due to the synergistic effects of the two modalities with regard to temporal and spatial resolution. Currently, only EEG-data recorded in fields of up to 7 T have been reported. We investigated the feasibility of recording EEG inside a 9.4 T static magnetic field, specifically to determine whether meaningful EEG information could be recovered from the data after removal of the cardiac-related artefact. EEG-data were recorded reliably and reproducibly at 9.4 T and the cardiac-related artefact increased in amplitude with increasing B0, as expected. Furthermore, we were able to correct for the cardiac-related artefact and identify auditory event related responses at 9.4 T in 75% of subjects using independent component analysis (ICA). Also by means of ICA we detected event related spectral perturbations (ERSP) in subjects at 9.4 T in response to opening/closing the eyes comparable with the response at 0 T. Overall our results suggest that it is possible to record meaningful EEG data at ultra-high magnetic fields. The simultaneous EEG-fMRI approach at ultra-high-fields opens up the horizon for investigating brain dynamics at a superb spatial resolution and a temporal resolution in the millisecond domain.

Effects of nicotine on social cognition, social competence and self-reported stress in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls.

More than 80 % of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia are nicotine-dependent. Self-medication of cognitive deficits and an increased vulnerability to stress are discussed as promoting factors for the development of nicotine dependence. However, the effects of nicotine on social cognition and subjective stress responses in schizophrenia are largely unexplored. A 2 × 2-factorial design (drug × group) was used to investigate the effects of nicotine versus placebo in smoking schizophrenia patients and healthy controls after 24 h of abstinence from smoking. Participants performed a facial affect recognition task and a semi-standardized role-play task, after which social competence and self-reported stress during social interaction were assessed. Data analysis revealed no significant group differences in the facial affect recognition task. During social interaction, healthy controls showed more non-verbal expressions and a lower subjective stress level than schizophrenia patients. There were no significant effects of nicotine in terms of an enhanced recognition of facial affect, more expressive behaviour or reduced subjective stress during social interaction. While schizophrenia patients unexpectedly recognized facial affect not significantly worse than healthy controls, the observed group differences in subjective stress and non-verbal expression during social interaction in the role-play situation are in line with previous findings. Contrary to expectations derived from the self-medication hypothesis, nicotine showed no significant effects on the dependent variables, perhaps because of the dosage used and the delay between the administration of nicotine and the performance of the role-play.

Nicotine effects on brain function during a visual oddball task: a comparison between conventional and EEG-informed fMRI analysis.

In a previous oddball task study, it was shown that the inclusion of electrophysiology (EEG), that is, single-trial P3 ERP parameters, in the analysis of fMRI responses can detect activation that is not apparent with conventional fMRI data modeling strategies [Warbrick, T., Mobascher, A., Brinkmeyer, J., Musso, F., Richter, N., Stoecker, T., et al. Single-trial P3 amplitude and latency informed event-related fMRI models yield different BOLD response patterns to a target detection task. Neuroimage, 47, 1532-1544, 2009]. Given that P3 is modulated by nicotine, including P3 parameters in the fMRI analysis might provide additional information about nicotine effects on brain function. A 1-mg nasal nicotine spray (0.5 mg each nostril) or placebo (pepper) spray was administered in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject, randomized, cross-over design. Simultaneous EEG-fMRI and behavioral data were recorded from 19 current smokers in response to an oddball-type visual choice RT task. Conventional general linear model analysis and single-trial P3 amplitude informed general linear model analysis of the fMRI data were performed. Comparing the nicotine with the placebo condition, reduced RTs in the nicotine condition were related to decreased BOLD responses in the conventional analysis encompassing the superior parietal lobule, the precuneus, and the lateral occipital cortex. On the other hand, reduced RTs were related to increased BOLD responses in the precentral and postcentral gyri, and ACC in the EEG-informed fMRI analysis. Our results show how integrated analyses of simultaneous EEG-fMRI data can be used to detect nicotine effects that would not have been revealed through conventional analysis of either measure in isolation. This emphasizes the significance of applying multimodal imaging methods to pharmacoimaging.

Pleasant music overcomes the loss of awareness in patients with visual neglect.

During the past 20 years there has been much research into the factors that modulate awareness of contralesional information in neurological patients with visual neglect or extinction. However, the potential role of the individual's emotional state in modulating awareness has been largely overlooked. In the current study, we induced a pleasant and positive affective response in patients with chronic visual neglect by allowing them to listen to their pleasant preferred music. We report that the patients showed enhanced visual awareness when tasks were performed under preferred music conditions relative to when tasks were performed either with unpreferred music or in silence. These results were also replicated when positive affect was induced before neglect was tested. Functional MRI data showed enhanced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and the cingulate gyrus associated with emotional responses when tasks were performed with preferred music relative to unpreferred music. Improved awareness of contralesional (left) targets with preferred music was also associated with a strong functional coupling between emotional areas and attentional brain regions in spared areas of the parietal cortex and early visual areas of the right hemisphere. These findings suggest that positive affect, generated by preferred music, can decrease visual neglect by increasing attentional resources. We discuss the possible roles of arousal and mood in generating these effects.

Ketamine effects on brain function--simultaneous fMRI/EEG during a visual oddball task.

BACKGROUND: Behavioral and electrophysiological human ketamine models of schizophrenia are used for testing compounds that target the glutamatergic system. However, corresponding functional neuroimaging models are difficult to reconcile with functional imaging and electrophysiological findings in schizophrenia. Resolving the discrepancies between different observational levels is critical to understand the complex pharmacological ketamine action and its usefulness for modeling schizophrenia pathophysiology. METHODS: We conducted a within-subject, randomized, placebo-controlled pharmacoimaging study in twenty-four male volunteers. Subjects were given low-dose S-ketamine (bolus prior to functional imaging: 0.1mg/kg during 5min, thereafter continuous infusion: 0.015625mg/kg/min reduced by 10% every ten minutes) or placebo while performing a visual oddball task during simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with continuous recording of event-related potentials (P300) and electrodermal activity (EDA). Before and after intervention, psychopathological status was assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) Rating Scale. RESULTS: P300 amplitude and corresponding BOLD responses were diminished in the ketamine condition in cortical regions being involved in sensory processing/selective attention. In both measurement modalities separation of drug conditions was achieved with area under the curve (AUC) values of up to 0.8-0.9. Ketamine effects were also observed in the clinical, behavioral and peripheral physiological domains (Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, reaction hit and false alarm rate, electrodermal activity and heart rate) which were in part related to the P300/fMRI measures. CONCLUSION: The findings from our ketamine experiment are consistent across modalities and directly related to observations in schizophrenia supporting the validity of the model. Our investigation provides the first prototypic example of a pharmacoimaging study using simultaneously acquired fMRI/EEG.

The val158met polymorphism of human catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) affects anterior cingulate cortex activation in response to painful laser stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Pain is a complex experience with sensory, emotional and cognitive aspects. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to pain-related phenotypes such as chronic pain states. Genetic variations in the gene coding for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) have been suggested to affect clinical and experimental pain-related phenotypes including regional mu-opioid system responses to painful stimulation as measured by ligand-PET (positron emission tomography). The functional val158met single nucleotide polymorphism has been most widely studied. However, apart from its impact on pain-induced opioid release the effect of this genetic variation on cerebral pain processing has not been studied with activation measures such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), PET or electroencephalography. In the present fMRI study we therefore sought to investigate the impact of the COMT val158met polymorphism on the blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response to painful laser stimulation. RESULTS: 57 subjects were studied. We found that subjects homozygous for the met158 allele exhibit a higher BOLD response in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), foremost in the mid-cingulate cortex, than carriers of the val158 allele. CONCLUSION: This result is in line with previous studies that reported higher pain sensitivity in homozygous met carriers. It adds to the current literature in suggesting that this behavioral phenotype may be mediated by, or is at least associated with, increased ACC activity. More generally, apart from one report that focused on pain-induced opioid release, this is the first functional neuroimaging study showing an effect of the COMT val158met polymorphism on cerebral pain processing.

Dynamic EEG-informed fMRI modeling of the pain matrix using 20-ms root mean square segments.

Previous studies on the spatio-temporal dynamics of cortical pain processing using electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), or intracranial recordings point towards a high degree of parallelism, e.g. parallel instead of sequential activation of primary and secondary somatosensory areas or simultaneous activation of somatosensory areas and the mid-cingulate cortex. However, because of the inverse problem, EEG and MEG provide only limited spatial resolution and certainty about the generators of cortical pain-induced electromagnetic activity, especially when multiple sources are simultaneously active. On the other hand, intracranial recordings are invasive and do not provide whole-brain coverage. In this study, we thought to investigate the spatio-temporal dynamics of cortical pain processing in 10 healthy subjects using simultaneous EEG/functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Voltages of 20 ms segments of the EEG root mean square (a global, largely reference-free measure of event-related EEG activity) in a time window 0-400 ms poststimulus were used to model trial-to-trial fluctuations in the fMRI blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal. EEG-derived regressors explained additional variance in the BOLD signal from 140 ms poststimulus onward. According to this analysis, the contralateral parietal operculum was the first cortical area to become activated upon painful laser stimulation. The activation pattern in BOLD analyses informed by subsequent EEG-time windows suggests largely parallel signal processing in the bilateral operculo-insular and mid-cingulate cortices. In that regard, our data are in line with previous reports. However, the approach presented here is noninvasive and bypasses the inverse problem using only temporal information from the EEG.

Scanning strategies for simultaneous EEG-fMRI evoked potential studies at 3 T.

There are two basic strategies for applying simultaneous EEG-fMRI: either the fMRI data are acquired continuously, or the stimulus is presented during a brief gap in scanning when the EEG data is clear of gradient artefact. The former has the advantage that the protocol for the fMRI data acquisition is not affected by the presence of EEG. This study investigated the effect of these different strategies and the subsequent ballistocardiogram artefact removal methods (Average Artefact Subtraction (AAS) and Optimal Basis Set (OBS)) on EEG data quality recorded in response to a visual stimulus. Continuous scanning generally resulted in VEPs that were no worse, and in some cases were better, than those measured during a gap in scanning. The AAS and OBS methods lead to comparable results at the level of the grand average visual evoked potential (VEP), although when examined at the level of the single trial the OBS method was more effective. The spectral quality of the data was similar across scanning protocols, as demonstrated by the proportion of spectral power in each frequency band, although there was an effect of the artefact removal method on the overall spectral power. Some differences in the VEPs were also noted when a TR of 1.5 s was used relative to a TR of 3 s. The results indicate improved EEG quality when fMRI scanning is continuous and BCG artefacts are removed using the OBS method, confirming that EEG can be added to an fMRI experiment with minimal change to the experimental protocol.

Effects of focusing and distraction on cold pressor-induced pain in chronic back pain patients and control subjects.

UNLABELLED: Previous studies showed equivocal findings regarding the efficacy of focused attention and distraction to experimental pain. This study examined the relative efficacy of these strategies on perception of cold pressor pain in 41 chronic back pain patients and 41 healthy control participants. Participants were randomized to the 2 strategies and then completed a 7-minute cold pressor test. Pain intensity and discomfort ratings were obtained during the task. Participants who completed the first task were asked to complete a second cold pressor task without instructions. Pain and discomfort ratings differed by condition across time. In the distraction condition, pain levels started low but continued to rise throughout the cold pressor immersion, whereas in the focused attention condition, pain levels started higher, rose less quickly, and then decreased from the middle of the task. Focused attention was associated with higher pain and lower completion rates in chronic pain patients compared with healthy control subjects. Focused attention might therefore not be an effective intervention strategy for individuals with chronic back pain. Finally, in the second cold pressor test, patients' pain reports rose more rapidly than those of healthy control subjects. The results of this study can be explained in terms of differences in cognitive appraisal between pain patients and healthy control participants. PERSPECTIVE: Marked differences were found between chronic back pain patients and control participants regarding focused attention as compared with distraction as a means of coping with cold pressor-induced pain. These differences underline the importance of taking into account previous experience with pain when recommending strategies to cope with painful procedures.

Effects of Ncl. Basalis Meynert volume on the Trail-Making-Test are restricted to the left hemisphere.

BACKGROUND: Cortical acetylcholine released from cells in the basal forebrain facilitates cue detection and improves attentional performance. Cholinergic fibres to the cortex originate from the CH4 cell group, sometimes referred to as the Nucleus basalis of Meynert and the Nucleus subputaminalis of Ayala. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of volumes of cholinergic nuclei on attention and executive function. METHODS: The volumes of CH4 and CH4p subregions were measured in a subgroup of 38 subjects (33.5 ± 11 years, 20 females) from a population-based cohort study of smokers and never-smokers who have undergone additional MR imaging. To define regions of interest, we applied a DARTEL-based procedure implemented in SPM8 and a validated probabilistic map of the basal forebrain. Attention and executive function were measured with Trail-Making Test (TMT A+B) and Stroop-Task. RESULTS: We found a quadratic effect of the left CH4 subregion on performance of the TMT. Extremely small as well as extremely large volumes are associated with poor test performance. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that a small CH4 volume predisposes for a hypocholinergic state, whereas an extremely large volume predisposes for a hypercholinergic state. Both extremes have detrimental effects on attention. Comparable nonlinear effects have already been reported in pharmacological studies on the effects cholinergic agonists on attention.

Using Structural and Functional Brain Imaging to Investigate Responses to Acute Thermal Pain.

UNLABELLED: Despite a fundamental interest in the relationship between structure and function, the relationships between measures of white matter microstructural coherence and functional brain responses to pain are poorly understood. We investigated whether fractional anisotropy (FA) in 2 white matter regions in pathways associated with pain is related to the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response to thermal stimulation. BOLD fMRI was measured from 16 healthy male subjects during painful thermal stimulation of the right arm. Diffusion-weighted images were acquired for each subject and FA estimates were extracted from the posterior internal capsule and the cingulum (cingulate gyrus). These values were then included as covariates in the fMRI data analysis. We found BOLD response in the midcingulate cortex (MCC) to be positively related to FA in the posterior internal capsule and negatively related to FA in the cingulum. Our results suggest that the MCC's involvement in processing pain can be further delineated by considering how the magnitude of the BOLD response is related to white matter microstructural coherence and to subjective perception of pain. Considering relationships to white matter microstructural coherence in tracts involved in transmitting information to different parts of the pain network can help interpretation of MCC BOLD activation. PERSPECTIVE: Relationships between functional brain responses, white matter microstructural coherence, and subjective ratings are crucial for understanding the role of the MCC in pain. These findings provide a basis for investigating the effect of the reduced white matter microstructural coherence observed in some pain disorders on the functional responses to pain.

Chronotype Modulates Language Processing-Related Cerebral Activity during Functional MRI (fMRI).

OBJECTIVE: Based on individual daily physiological cycles, humans can be classified as early (EC), late (LC) and intermediate (IC) chronotypes. Recent studies have verified that chronotype-specificity relates to performance on cognitive tasks: participants perform more efficiently when tested in the chronotype-specific optimal time of day than when tested in their non-optimal time. Surprisingly, imaging studies focussing on the underlying neural mechanisms of potential chronotype-specificities are sparse. Moreover, chronotype-specific alterations of language-related semantic processing have been neglected so far. METHODS: 16 male, healthy ECs, 16 ICs and 16 LCs participated in a fast event-related functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) paradigm probing semantic priming. Subjects read two subsequently presented words (prime, target) and were requested to determine whether the target word was an existing word or a non-word. Subjects were tested during their individual evening hours when homeostatic sleep pressure and circadian alertness levels are high to ensure equal entrainment. RESULTS: Chronotype-specificity is associated with task-performance and brain activation. First, ECs exhibited slower reaction times than LCs. Second, ECs showed attenuated BOLD responses in several language-related brain areas, e.g. in the left postcentral gyrus, left and right precentral gyrus and in the right superior frontal gyrus. Additionally, increased BOLD responses were revealed for LCs as compared to ICs in task-related areas, e.g. in the right inferior parietal lobule and in the right postcentral gyrus. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reveal that even basic language processes are associated with chronotype-specific neuronal mechanisms. Consequently, results might change the way we schedule patient evaluations and/or healthy subjects in e.g. experimental research and adding "chronotype" as a statistical covariate.

Time-frequency analysis of resting state and evoked EEG data recorded at higher magnetic fields up to 9.4 T.

BACKGROUND: Combining both high temporal and spatial resolution by means of simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is of relevance to neuroscientists. This combination, however, leads to a distortion of the EEG signal by the so-called cardio-ballistic artefacts. The aim of the present study was developing an approach to restore meaningful physiological EEG data from recordings at different magnetic fields. NEW METHODS: The distortions introduced by the magnetic field were corrected using a combination of concepts from independent component analysis (ICA) and mutual information (MI). Thus, the components were classified as either related to the cardio-ballistic artefacts or to the signals of interest. EEG data from two experimental paradigms recorded at different magnetic field strengths up to 9.4 T were analyzed: (i) spontaneous activity using an eyes-open/eyes-closed alternation, and (ii) responses to auditory stimuli, i.e. auditory evoked potentials. RESULTS: Even at ultra-high magnetic fields up to 9.4 T the proposed artefact rejection approach restored the physiological time-frequency information contained in the signal of interest and the data were suitable for subsequent analyses. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Blind source separation (BSS) has been used to retrieve information from EEG data recorded inside the MR scanner in previous studies. After applying the presented method on EEG data recorded at 4 T, 7 T, and 9.4 T, we could retrieve more information than from data cleaned with the BSS method. CONCLUSIONS: The present work demonstrates that EEG data recorded at ultra-high magnetic fields can be used for studying neuroscientific research question related to oscillatory activity.

Transferring cognitive tasks between brain imaging modalities: implications for task design and results interpretation in FMRI studies.

As cognitive neuroscience methods develop, established experimental tasks are used with emerging brain imaging modalities. Here transferring a paradigm (the visual oddball task) with a long history of behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) experiments to a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment is considered. The aims of this paper are to briefly describe fMRI and when its use is appropriate in cognitive neuroscience; illustrate how task design can influence the results of an fMRI experiment, particularly when that task is borrowed from another imaging modality; explain the practical aspects of performing an fMRI experiment. It is demonstrated that manipulating the task demands in the visual oddball task results in different patterns of blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) activation. The nature of the fMRI BOLD measure means that many brain regions are found to be active in a particular task. Determining the functions of these areas of activation is very much dependent on task design and analysis. The complex nature of many fMRI tasks means that the details of the task and its requirements need careful consideration when interpreting data. The data show that this is particularly important in those tasks relying on a motor response as well as cognitive elements and that covert and overt responses should be considered where possible. Furthermore, the data show that transferring an EEG paradigm to an fMRI experiment needs careful consideration and it cannot be assumed that the same paradigm will work equally well across imaging modalities. It is therefore recommended that the design of an fMRI study is pilot tested behaviorally to establish the effects of interest and then pilot tested in the fMRI environment to ensure appropriate design, implementation and analysis for the effects of interest.