Using advanced mass spectrometry techniques to fully characterize atmospheric organic carbon: current capabilities and remaining gaps.

Organic compounds in the atmosphere vary widely in their molecular composition and chemical properties, so no single instrument can reasonably measure the entire range of ambient compounds. Over the past decade, a new generation of in situ, field-deployable mass spectrometers has dramatically improved our ability to detect, identify, and quantify these organic compounds, but no systematic approach has been developed to assess the extent to which currently available tools capture the entire space of chemical identity and properties that is expected in the atmosphere. Reduced-parameter frameworks that have been developed to describe atmospheric mixtures are exploited here to characterize the range of chemical properties accessed by a suite of instruments. Multiple chemical spaces (e.g. oxidation state of carbon vs. volatility, and oxygen number vs. carbon number) were populated with ions measured by several mass spectrometers, with gas- and particle-phase α-pinene oxidation products serving as the test mixture of organic compounds. Few gaps are observed in the coverage of the parameter spaces by the instruments employed in this work, though the full extent to which comprehensive measurement was achieved is difficult to assess due to uncertainty in the composition of the mixture. Overlaps between individual ions and regions in parameter space were identified, both between gas- and particle-phase measurements, and within each phase. These overlaps were conservatively found to account for little (<10%) of the measured mass. However, challenges in identifying overlaps and in accurately converting molecular formulas into chemical properties (such as volatility or reactivity) highlight a continued need to incorporate structural information into atmospheric measurements.

Microphysical explanation of the RH-dependent water affinity of biogenic organic aerosol and its importance for climate.

A large fraction of atmospheric organic aerosol (OA) originates from natural emissions that are oxidized in the atmosphere to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Isoprene (IP) and monoterpenes (MT) are the most important precursors of SOA originating from forests. The climate impacts from OA are currently estimated through parameterizations of water uptake that drastically simplify the complexity of OA. We combine laboratory experiments, thermodynamic modeling, field observations, and climate modeling to (1) explain the molecular mechanisms behind RH-dependent SOA water-uptake with solubility and phase separation; (2) show that laboratory data on IP- and MT-SOA hygroscopicity are representative of ambient data with corresponding OA source profiles; and (3) demonstrate the sensitivity of the modeled aerosol climate effect to assumed OA water affinity. We conclude that the commonly used single-parameter hygroscopicity framework can introduce significant error when quantifying the climate effects of organic aerosol. The results highlight the need for better constraints on the overall global OA mass loadings and its molecular composition, including currently underexplored anthropogenic and marine OA sources.

Chemistry of atmospheric nucleation: on the recent advances on precursor characterization and atmospheric cluster composition in connection with atmospheric new particle formation.

The recent development in measurement techniques and theoretical understanding has enabled us to study atmospheric vapor, cluster and nanoparticle concentrations, dynamics, and their connection to atmospheric nucleation. Here we present a summary of the chemistry of atmospheric clustering, growing nanoparticles, and their precursors. In this work, we focus particularly on atmospheric gas-to-particle conversion and recent progress in its understanding.

Mass spectral analysis of organic aerosol formed downwind of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: field studies and laboratory confirmations.

In June 2010, the NOAA WP-3D aircraft conducted two survey flights around the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill. The Gulf oil spill resulted in an isolated source of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) precursors in a relatively clean environment. Measurements of aerosol composition and volatile organic species (VOCs) indicated formation of SOA from intermediate-volatility organic compounds (IVOCs) downwind of the oil spill (Science2011, 331, doi 10.1126/science.1200320). In an effort to better understand formation of SOA in this environment, we present mass spectral characteristics of SOA in the Gulf and of SOA formed in the laboratory from evaporated light crude oil. Compared to urban primary organic aerosol, high-mass-resolution analysis of the background-subtracted SOA spectra in the Gulf (for short, "Gulf SOA") showed higher contribution of C(x)H(y)O(+) relative to C(x)H(y)(+) fragments at the same nominal mass. In each transect downwind of the DWH spill site, a gradient in the degree of oxidation of the Gulf SOA was observed: more oxidized SOA (oxygen/carbon = O/C ∼0.4) was observed in the area impacted by fresher oil; less oxidized SOA (O/C ∼0.3), with contribution from fragments with a hydrocarbon backbone, was found in a broader region of more-aged surface oil. Furthermore, in the plumes originating from the more-aged oil, contribution of oxygenated fragments to SOA decreased with downwind distance. Despite differences between experimental conditions in the laboratory and the ambient environment, mass spectra of SOA formed from gas-phase oxidation of crude oil by OH radicals in a smog chamber and a flow tube reactor strongly resembled the mass spectra of Gulf SOA (r(2) > 0.94). Processes that led to the observed Gulf SOA characteristics are also likely to occur in polluted regions where VOCs and IVOCs are coemitted.

Real-time methods for estimating organic component mass concentrations from aerosol mass spectrometer data.

We use results from positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis of 15 urban aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) data sets to derive simple methods for estimating major organic aerosol (OA) component concentrations in real time. PMF analysis extracts mass spectral (MS) profiles and mass concentrations for key OA components such as hydrocarbon-like OA (HOA), oxygenated OA (OOA), low-volatility OOA (LV-OOA), semivolatile OOA (SV-OOA), and biomass burning OA (BBOA). The variability in the component MS across all sites is characterized and used to derive standard profiles for real-time estimation of component concentrations. Two methods for obtaining first-order estimates of the HOA and OOA mass concentrations are evaluated. The first approach is the tracer m/z method, in which the HOA and OOA concentrations are estimated from m/z 57 and m/z 44 as follows: HOA ∼ 13.4 × (C(57) - 0.1 × C(44)) and OOA ∼ 6.6 × C(44), where C(i) is the equivalent mass concentration of tracer ion m/z i. The second approach uses a chemical mass balance (CMB) method in which standard HOA and OOA profiles are used as a priori information for calculating their mass concentrations. The HOA and OOA mass concentrations obtained from the first-order estimates are evaluated by comparing with the corresponding PMF results for each site. Both methods reproduce the HOA and OOA concentrations to within ∼30% of the results from detailed PMF analysis at most sites, with the CMB method being slightly better. For hybrid CMB methods, we find that fixing the LV-OOA spectrum and not constraining the other spectra produces the best results.

Metastable phases in polar stratospheric aerosols.

Phase changes in stratospheric aerosols were studied by cooling a droplet of sulfuric acid (H(2)SO(4)) in the presence of nitric acid (HNO(3)) and water vapor. A sequence of solid phases was observed to form that followed Ostwald's rule for phase nucleation. For stratospheric partial pressures at temperatures between 193 and 195 kelvin, a metastable ternary H(2)SO(4)-HNO(3) hydrate, H(2)SO(4) . HNO(3) . 5H(2)O, formed in coexistence with binary H(2)SO(4) . kH(2)O hydrates (k = 2, 3, and 4) and then transformed to nitric acid dihydrate, HNO(3) . 2H(2)O, within a few hours. Metastable HNO(3) . 2H(2)O always formed before stable nitric acid trihydrate, HNO(3).3H(2)O, under stratospheric conditions and persisted for long periods. The formation of metastable phases provides a mechanism for differential particle growth and sedimentation of HNO(3) from the polar winter stratosphere.

Vapor pressures of solid hydrates of nitric Acid: implications for polar stratospheric clouds.

Thermodynamic data are presented for hydrates of nitric acid: HNO(3).H(2)O, HNO(3).2H(2)O, HNO(3).3H(2)O, and a higher hydrate. Laboratory data indicate that nucleation and persistence of metastable HNO(3).2H(2)O may be favored in polar stratospheric clouds over the slightly more stable HNO(3).3H(2)O. Atmospheric observations indicate that some polar stratospheric clouds may be composed of HNO(3).2H(2)O and HNO(3).3H(2)O. Vapor transfer from HNO(3).2H(2)O to HNO(3).3H(2)O could be a key step in the sedimentation of HNO(3), which plays an important role in the depletion of polar ozone.

Terpene Composition Complexity Controls Secondary Organic Aerosol Yields from Scots Pine Volatile Emissions.

Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) impact climate by scattering and absorbing radiation and contributing to cloud formation. SOA models are based on studies of simplified chemical systems that do not account for the chemical complexity in the atmosphere. This study investigated SOA formation from a mixture of real Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) emissions including a variety of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. SOA generation was characterized from different combinations of volatile compounds as the plant emissions were altered with an herbivore stress treatment. During active herbivore feeding, monoterpene and sesquiterpene emissions increased, but SOA mass yields decreased after accounting for absorption effects. SOA mass yields were controlled by sesquiterpene emissions in healthy plants. In contrast, SOA mass yields from stressed plant emissions were controlled by the specific blend of monoterpene emissions. Conservative estimates using a box model approach showed a 1.5- to 2.3-fold aerosol enhancement when the terpene complexity was taken into account. This enhancement was relative to the commonly used model monoterpene, "α-pinene". These results suggest that simplifying terpene complexity in SOA models could lead to underpredictions in aerosol mass loading.

Ion-induced sulfuric acid-ammonia nucleation drives particle formation in coastal Antarctica.

Formation of new aerosol particles from trace gases is a major source of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) in the global atmosphere, with potentially large effects on cloud optical properties and Earth's radiative balance. Controlled laboratory experiments have resolved, in detail, the different nucleation pathways likely responsible for atmospheric new particle formation, yet very little is known from field studies about the molecular steps and compounds involved in different regions of the atmosphere. The scarcity of primary particle sources makes secondary aerosol formation particularly important in the Antarctic atmosphere. Here, we report on the observation of ion-induced nucleation of sulfuric acid and ammonia-a process experimentally investigated by the CERN CLOUD experiment-as a major source of secondary aerosol particles over coastal Antarctica. We further show that measured high sulfuric acid concentrations, exceeding 107 molecules cm-3, are sufficient to explain the observed new particle growth rates. Our findings show that ion-induced nucleation is the dominant particle formation mechanism, implying that galactic cosmic radiation plays a key role in new particle formation in the pristine Antarctic atmosphere.

Novel insights on new particle formation derived from a pan-european observing system.

The formation of new atmospheric particles involves an initial step forming stable clusters less than a nanometre in size (<~1 nm), followed by growth into quasi-stable aerosol particles a few nanometres (~1-10 nm) and larger (>~10 nm). Although at times, the same species can be responsible for both processes, it is thought that more generally each step comprises differing chemical contributors. Here, we present a novel analysis of measurements from a unique multi-station ground-based observing system which reveals new insights into continental-scale patterns associated with new particle formation. Statistical cluster analysis of this unique 2-year multi-station dataset comprising size distribution and chemical composition reveals that across Europe, there are different major seasonal trends depending on geographical location, concomitant with diversity in nucleating species while it seems that the growth phase is dominated by organic aerosol formation. The diversity and seasonality of these events requires an advanced observing system to elucidate the key processes and species driving particle formation, along with detecting continental scale changes in aerosol formation into the future.

New particle formation in the free troposphere: A question of chemistry and timing.

New particle formation (NPF) is the source of over half of the atmosphere's cloud condensation nuclei, thus influencing cloud properties and Earth's energy balance. Unlike in the planetary boundary layer, few observations of NPF in the free troposphere exist. We provide observational evidence that at high altitudes, NPF occurs mainly through condensation of highly oxygenated molecules (HOMs), in addition to taking place through sulfuric acid-ammonia nucleation. Neutral nucleation is more than 10 times faster than ion-induced nucleation, and growth rates are size-dependent. NPF is restricted to a time window of 1 to 2 days after contact of the air masses with the planetary boundary layer; this is related to the time needed for oxidation of organic compounds to form HOMs. These findings require improved NPF parameterization in atmospheric models.

Effect of dimethylamine on the gas phase sulfuric acid concentration measured by Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry.

Sulfuric acid is widely recognized as a very important substance driving atmospheric aerosol nucleation. Based on quantum chemical calculations it has been suggested that the quantitative detection of gas phase sulfuric acid (H2SO4) by use of Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CIMS) could be biased in the presence of gas phase amines such as dimethylamine (DMA). An experiment (CLOUD7 campaign) was set up at the CLOUD (Cosmics Leaving OUtdoor Droplets) chamber to investigate the quantitative detection of H2SO4 in the presence of dimethylamine by CIMS at atmospherically relevant concentrations. For the first time in the CLOUD experiment, the monomer sulfuric acid concentration was measured by a CIMS and by two CI-APi-TOF (Chemical Ionization-Atmospheric Pressure interface-Time Of Flight) mass spectrometers. In addition, neutral sulfuric acid clusters were measured with the CI-APi-TOFs. The CLOUD7 measurements show that in the presence of dimethylamine (<5 to 70 pptv) the sulfuric acid monomer measured by the CIMS represents only a fraction of the total H2SO4, contained in the monomer and the clusters that is available for particle growth. Although it was found that the addition of dimethylamine dramatically changes the H2SO4 cluster distribution compared to binary (H2SO4-H2O) conditions, the CIMS detection efficiency does not seem to depend substantially on whether an individual H2SO4 monomer is clustered with a DMA molecule. The experimental observations are supported by numerical simulations based on A Self-contained Atmospheric chemistry coDe coupled with a molecular process model (Sulfuric Acid Water NUCleation) operated in the kinetic limit.

Guidance for the performance evaluation of three-dimensional air quality modeling systems for particulate matter and visibility.

Guidance for the performance evaluation of three-dimensional air quality modeling systems for particulate matter and visibility is presented. Four levels are considered: operational, diagnostic, mechanistic, and probabilistic evaluations. First, a comprehensive model evaluation should be conducted in at least two distinct geographical locations and for several meteorological episodes. Next, streamlined evaluations can be conducted for other similar applications if the comprehensive evaluation is deemed satisfactory. In all cases, the operational evaluation alone is insufficient, and some diagnostic evaluation must always be carried out. Recommendations are provided for designing field measurement programs that can provide the data needed for such model performance evaluations.

Human artificial insemination: donors in Melbourne. From our medical schools.

Donors are crucial to any artificial insemination by donor (AID) programme but information about them is limited. This paper discusses the sources, characteristics and processing of semen donors.

Mass spectral evidence that small changes in composition caused by oxidative aging processes alter aerosol CCN properties.

Oxidative processing (i.e., "aging") of organic aerosol particles in the troposphere affects their cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity, yet the chemical mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, oleic acid aerosol particles were reacted with ozone while particle chemical composition and CCN activity were simultaneously monitored. The CCN activated fraction at 0.66 +/- 0.06% supersaturation was zero for 200 nm mobility diameter particles exposed to 565 to 8320 ppmv O3 for less than 30 s. For greater exposure times, however, the particles became CCN active. The corresponding chemical change shown in the particle mass spectra was the oxidation of aldehyde groups to form carboxylic acid groups. Specifically, 9-oxononanoic acid was oxidized to azelaic acid, although the azelaic acid remained a minor component, comprising 3-5% of the mass in the CCN-inactive particles compared to 4-6% in the CCN-active particles. Similarly, the aldehyde groups of alpha-acyloxyalkylhydroperoxide (AAHP) products were also oxidized to carboxylic acid groups. On a mass basis, this conversion was at least as important as the increased azelaic acid yield. Analysis of our results with Köhler theory suggests that an increase in the water-soluble material brought about by the aldehyde-to-carboxylic acid conversion is an insufficient explanation for the increased CCN activity. An increased concentration of surface-active species, which decreases the surface tension of the aqueous droplet during activation, is an interpretation consistent with the chemical composition observations and Köhler theory. These results suggest that small changes in particle chemical composition caused by oxidation could increase the CCN activity of tropospheric aerosol particles during their atmospheric residence time.

Chemical and microphysical characterization of ambient aerosols with the aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer.

The application of mass spectrometric techniques to the real-time measurement and characterization of aerosols represents a significant advance in the field of atmospheric science. This review focuses on the aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS), an instrument designed and developed at Aerodyne Research, Inc. (ARI) that is the most widely used thermal vaporization AMS. The AMS uses aerodynamic lens inlet technology together with thermal vaporization and electron-impact mass spectrometry to measure the real-time non-refractory (NR) chemical speciation and mass loading as a function of particle size of fine aerosol particles with aerodynamic diameters between approximately 50 and 1,000 nm. The original AMS utilizes a quadrupole mass spectrometer (Q) with electron impact (EI) ionization and produces ensemble average data of particle properties. Later versions employ time-of-flight (ToF) mass spectrometers and can produce full mass spectral data for single particles. This manuscript presents a detailed discussion of the strengths and limitations of the AMS measurement approach and reviews how the measurements are used to characterize particle properties. Results from selected laboratory experiments and field measurement campaigns are also presented to highlight the different applications of this instrument. Recent instrumental developments, such as the incorporation of softer ionization techniques (vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photo-ionization, Li+ ion, and electron attachment) and high-resolution ToF mass spectrometers, that yield more detailed information about the organic aerosol component are also described.

Uptake of organic gas phase species by 1-methylnaphthalene.

Organic compounds are a significant component of tropospheric aerosols. In the present study, 1-methylnaphthalene was selected as a surrogate for aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found in tropospheric aerosols. Mass accommodation coefficients (alpha) on 1-methylnaphthalene were determined as a function of temperature (267 K to 298 K) for gas-phase m-xylene, ethylbenzene, butylbenzene, alpha-pinene, gamma-terpinene, p-cymene, and 2-methyl-2-hexanol. The gas uptake studies were performed with droplets maintained under liquid-vapor equilibrium conditions using a droplet train flow reactor. The mass accommodation coefficients for all of the molecules studied in these experiments exhibit negative temperature dependence. The upper and lower values of alpha at 267 and 298 K respectively are as follows: for m-xylene 0.44 +/- 0.05 and 0.26 +/- 0.03; for ethylbenzene 0.37 +/- 0.03 and 0.22 +/- 0.04; for butylbenzene 0.47 +/- 0.06 and 0.31 +/- 0.04; for alpha-pinene 0.47 +/- 0.07 and 0.10 +/- 0.05; for gamma-terpinene 0.37 +/- 0.04 and 0.12 +/- 0.06; for p-cymene 0.74 +/- 0.05 and 0.36 +/- 0.07; for 2-methyl-2-hexanol 0.44 +/- 0.06 and 0.29 +/- 0.06. The uptake measurements also yielded values for the product HD(l)(1/2) for most of the molecules studied (H = Henry's law constant, D(l) = liquid-phase diffusion coefficient). Using calculated values of D(l), the Henry's law constants (H) for these molecules were obtained as a function of temperature. The H values at 298 K in units 10(3) M atm(-1) are as follows: for m-xylene (0.48 +/- 0.05); for ethylbenzene (0.50 +/- 0.08); for butylbenzene (3.99 +/- 0.93); for alpha-pinene (0.53 +/- 0.07); for p-cymene (0.23 +/- 0.07); for 2-methyl-2-hexanol (1.85 +/- 0.29).

Ozonolysis of mixed oleic-acid/stearic-acid particles: reaction kinetics and chemical morphology.

The ozonolysis of mixed oleic-acid/stearic-acid (OL/SA) aerosol particles from 0/100 to 100/0 wt % composition is studied. The magnitude of the divergence of the particle beam inside an aerosol mass spectrometer shows that, in the concentration range 100/0 to 60/40, the mixed OL/SA particles are liquid prior to reaction. Upon ozonolysis, particles having compositions of 75/25 and 60/40 change shape, indicating that they have solidified during reaction. Transmission electron micrographs show that SA(s) forms needles. For particles having compositions of 75/25, 60/40, and greater SA content, the reaction kinetics exhibit an initial fast decay of OL for low O(3) exposure with no further loss of OL at higher O(3) exposures. For compositions from 50/50 to 10/90, the residual OL concentration remains at 28 +/- 2% of its initial value. The initial reactive uptake coefficient for O(3), as determined by OL loss, decreases linearly from 1.25 (+/-0.2) x 10(-3) to 0.60 (+/-0.15) x 10(-3) for composition changes of 100/0 to 60/40. At 50/50 composition, the uptake coefficient drops abruptly to 0.15 (+/-0.1) x 10(-3), and there are no further changes with increased SA content. These observations can be explained with a combination of three postulates: (1) Unreacted mixed particles remain as supersaturated liquids up to 60/40 composition, and the OL in this form rapidly reacts with O(3). (2) SA, as it solidifies, locks into its crystal structure a significant amount of OL, and this OL is completely inaccessible to O(3). (3) Accompanying crystallization, some stearic acid molecules connect as a filamentous network to form a semipermeable gel containing liquid OL but with a reduced uptake coefficient because of the decrease in molecular diffusivity in the gel. An individual particle of 50/50 to 90/10 is hypothesized as a combination of SA crystals having OL impurities (postulate 2) that are partially enveloped by an SA/OL gel (postulate 3) to explain (a) the abrupt drop in the uptake coefficient from 60/40 to 50/50 and (b) the residual OL content even after high ozone exposure. The results of this study, pointing out the important effects of particle phase, composition, and morphology on chemical reactivity, contribute to an improved understanding of the aging processes of atmospheric aerosol particles.

Measurements of secondary organic aerosol from oxidation of cycloalkenes, terpenes, and m-xylene using an Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer.

The Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) was used to characterize physical and chemical properties of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formed during ozonolysis of cycloalkenes and biogenic hydrocarbons and photo-oxidation of m-xylene. Comparison of mass and volume distributions from the AMS and differential mobility analyzers yielded estimates of "effective" density of the SOA in the range of 0.64-1.45 g/cm3, depending on the particular system. Increased contribution of the fragment at m/z 44, C02+ ion fragment of oxygenated organics, and higher "delta" values, based on ion series analysis of the mass spectra, in nucleation experiments of cycloalkenes suggest greater contribution of more oxygenated molecules to the SOA as compared to those formed under seeded experiments. Dominant negative "delta" values of SOA formed during ozonolysis of biogenics indicates the presence of terpene derivative structures or cyclic or unsaturated oxygenated compounds in the SOA. Evidence of acid-catalyzed heterogeneous chemistry, characterized by greater contribution of higher molecular weight fragments to the SOA and corresponding changes in "delta" patterns, is observed in the ozonolysis of alpha-pinene. Mass spectra of SOA formed during photooxidation of m-xylene exhibit features consistent with the presence of furandione compounds and nitro organics. This study demonstrates that mixtures of SOA compounds produced from similar precursors result in broadly similar AMS mass spectra. Thus, fragmentation patterns observed for biogenic versus anthropogenic SOA may be useful in determining the sources of ambient SOA.