Integrating pH into the metabolic theory of ecology to predict bacterial diversity in soil.

Microorganisms play essential roles in soil ecosystem functioning and maintenance, but methods are currently lacking for quantitative assessments of the mechanisms underlying microbial diversity patterns observed across disparate systems and scales. Here we established a quantitative model to incorporate pH into metabolic theory to capture and explain some of the unexplained variation in the relationship between temperature and soil bacterial diversity. We then tested and validated our newly developed models across multiple scales of ecological organization. At the species level, we modeled the diversification rate of the model bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens evolving under laboratory media gradients varying in temperature and pH. At the community level, we modeled patterns of bacterial communities in paddy soils across a continental scale, which included natural gradients of pH and temperature. Last, we further extended our model at a global scale by integrating a meta-analysis comprising 870 soils collected worldwide from a wide range of ecosystems. Our results were robust in consistently predicting the distributional patterns of bacterial diversity across soil temperature and pH gradients-with model variation explaining from 7 to 66% of the variation in bacterial diversity, depending on the scale and system complexity. Together, our study represents a nexus point for the integration of soil bacterial diversity and quantitative models with the potential to be used at distinct spatiotemporal scales. By mechanistically representing pH into metabolic theory, our study enhances our capacity to explain and predict the patterns of bacterial diversity and functioning under current or future climate change scenarios.

Cadmium tolerance in Elodea canadensis Michx: Subcellular distribution and metabolomic analysis.

The aquatic plant Elodea canadensis is considered a good candidate for ecotoxicological investigations. Cadmium (Cd) is a widespread contaminant in aquatic systems. In this study, to better elucidate the underlying tolerance mechanism and molecular impact of environmentally relevant Cd concentration in aquatic plants, subcellular distribution, chemical forms, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based non-targeted metabolomics profiles were comprehensively analyzed in E. canadensis subjected to 0 and 10 µM Cd treatment for 5 d. Subcellular fractionation analysis of Cd-containing leaves showed that 67% of Cd was compartmentalized in cell wall followed by the soluble fraction (24 %) and organelles (9 %). The majority of Cd (90 %) was found in the extraction using 1 M NaCl. Metabolomic analysis using unsupervised principal component analyses and a supervised partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed clear differences in metabolic profiles between the two groups, demonstrating the metabolic effects of Cd. The 155 identified compounds altered by Cd were mainly from primary metabolism, including sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and their derivatives. Secondary metabolites such as polyphenols and phenolamides were also detected. The massive up-regulation of metabolites, including trehalose, proline, sarcosine, nicotianamine, putrescine, α-ketoglutaric acid, citric acid, and phytol might represent a detoxification mechanism. These findings highlighted the mechanistic strategies that E. canadensis employs to defend against Cd toxicity.

Responses of duckweed (Lemna minor L.) to aluminum stress: Physiological and proteomics analyses.

Aluminum (Al) is commonly considered an abiotic stress factor under acidic conditions. Duckweed (Lemna minor L.) has wide application in ecotoxicological research as a model organism and, in this study, its response to Al bioaccumulation was evaluated at morphological, physiological and proteomic levels. The Al accumulation in L. minor was accompanied by chlorosis and growth inhibition. Overproduction of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, and decreased chlorophyll and protein contents, suggested that Al exposure induced oxidative stress. Inhibition of photosynthesis was evident in a significant decrease in maximum photosystem II quantum yield. There were 261 proteins, with significant changes in expression, successfully identified and quantified through isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) analysis. Among the KEGG pathway enrichment proteins, those related to the citrate cycle and amino acid metabolism were predominantly up-regulated, whereas those associated with energy metabolism and glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism were predominantly down-regulated. In addition, antioxidant enzyme related proteins played an important role in the response of L. minor to Al. The western blot analysis further validated the changes in photosynthetic related proteins. These results provide comprehensive insights into the physiological and molecular mechanisms of Al toxicity and tolerance in L. minor.

Toxic effects of Pb on Spirodela polyrhiza (L.): Subcellular distribution, chemical forms, morphological and physiological disorders.

The impact of lead (Pb) on Spirodela polyrhiza was studied to determine the subcellular distribution, chemical forms, and resulting morphophysiological modifications after treatments with 20 or 80 µM Pb(NO3)2 for 10 days. At the subcellular level, the Pb uptake by S. polyrhiza was mainly compartmentalized in the cell walls (70%), and the majority of Pb (approximately 70%) was extracted using 1 M NaCl and 2% acetic acid (HAc). Visual symptoms of phytotoxcity, surface roughness and closure of stomata, were observed in Pb-treated fronds. Electron-dense precipitates were present in cell walls, and changes to the ultrastructure were most noticeably exhibited in organelle shape, internal organization, and size of the plastoglobules of chloroplasts. Toxic concentrations of Pb induced oxidative stress in fronds, characterized by an accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) and decreased chlorophyll and unsaturated fatty acid contents. Pb exposure increased ABS/RC, TRo/RC, DIo/RC, Vj, and φDo (Fv/Fm), indicating that reaction centers were transformed to dissipation sinks, leading to a decrease in the efficiency of photosystem II, which was evident from the decreased values of Fv/Fo, Fv/Fm, ψEo, φEo, RC/ABS, and PIabs. These results indicated that decreased photosynthesis in Pb-treated fronds was partially ascribed to the lower pigment content, inhibition of electron transport, inactivation of the reaction centers, damage to the chloroplast ultrastructure, and stomatal closure. The physiological implications of subcellular distribution and chemical forms are discussed in relation to Pb accumulation and detoxification. However, Pb accumulation significantly impaired photosynthesis and membrane integrity in the fronds of S. polyrhiza.

Evaluation of cobalt hyperaccumulation and tolerance potential of the duckweed (Lemna minor L.).

Lemna minor could tolerate and accumulate more than 5,000 µg g-1 DW of cobalt (Co) without foliar symptoms, indicating it is a Co hyperaccumulator. However, the physiological and metabolomics mechanisms that are responsible for Co accumulation and tolerance are largely unknown. In the present study, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy suggested that CO, CH, and OH groups are involved in Co biosorption. The activation of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, guiacol peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione reductase, as well as ascorbic acid and glutathione might be involved in capturing reactive oxygen species as evidenced by decreased malondialdehyde in fronds treated with Co. Metabolomics analysis revealed that Co stress significantly increased the production of several amino acids (except aspartic acid and cysteine at 200 µM) and organic acids (with the exception of succinic acid). In particular, an approximate 15-fold increase was noted in the citric acid concentration. Upon exposure to Co, increases were observed in citrate synthase, malate dehydrogenase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activities, and a decrease was observed in isocitrate dehydrogenase related to the metabolism of organic acids. Overall, the increase in concentration of organic and amino acids and antioxidants support their effective involvement in improving Co tolerance and accumulation in L. minor.

Alleviation of cadmium toxicity in Lemna minor by exogenous salicylic acid.

Cadmium (Cd) is a significant environmental pollutant in the aquatic environment. Salicylic acid (SA) is a ubiquitous phenolic compound. The goal of this study was to assess the morphological, physiological and biochemical changes in duckweed (L. minor) upon exposure to 10µM CdCl2, 10µM CdCl2 plus 50µM SA, or 50µM SA for 7 days. Reversing the effects of Cd, SA decreased Cd accumulation in plants, improved accumulation of minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, B, Mo) absorption, increased endogenous SA concentration, and phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL) activity. Chlorosis-associated symptoms, the reduction in chlorophyll content, and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species induced by Cd exposure were largely reversed by SA. SA significantly decreased the toxic effects of Cd on the activities of the superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase in the fronds of L. minor. Furthermore, SA reversed the detrimental effects of Cd on total ascorbate, glutathione, the ascorbic acid/oxidized dehydroascorbate and glutathione/glutathione disulphide ratios, lipid peroxidation, malondialdehyde concentration, lipoxygenase activity, and the accumulation of proline. SA induced the up-regulation of heat shock proteins (Hsp70) and attenuated the adverse effects of Cd on cell viability. These results suggest that SA confers tolerance to Cd stress in L. minor through different mechanisms.

Mercury induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and activation of antioxidative system and Hsp70 induction in duckweed (Lemna minor).

Mercury uptake and its effects on physiology, biochemistry and genomic stability were investigated in Lemna minor after 2 and 6d of exposure to 0-30µM Hg. The accumulation of Hg increased in a concentration- and duration-dependent manner, and was positively correlated with the leaf damage. Oxidative stress after Hg exposure was evidenced in L. minor by a significant decrease in photosynthetic pigments, an increase in malondialdehyde and lipoxygenase activities (total enzyme activity and isoenzymes activity). Fronds of L. minor exposed to Hg showed an induction of peroxidase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase activities (total enzyme activity and some isoenzymes activities). Exposure of L. minor to Hg reduced the activity (total enzyme activity and some isoenzymes activities) of glutathione reductase, and superoxide dismutase. Exposure to Hg produced a transient increase in the content of glutathione and ascorbic acid. The content of dehydroascorbate and oxidized glutathione in L. minor were high during the entire exposure period. Exposure of L. minor to Hg also caused the accumulation of proline and soluble sugars. The amplification of new bands and the absence of normal DNA amplicons in treated plants in the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profile indicated that genomic template stability (GTS) was affected by Hg treatment. The accumulation of Hsp70 indicated the occurrence of a heat shock response at all Hg concentrations. These results suggest that L. minor plants were able to cope with Hg toxicity through the activation of various mechanisms involving enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, up-regulation of proline, and induction of Hsp70.

Response of Spirodela polyrhiza to cerium: subcellular distribution, growth and biochemical changes.

Rare earth elements are new and emerging contaminants in freshwater systems. Greater duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza L.) is a common aquatic plant widely used in phytotoxicity tests for xenobiotic substances. In this study, the cerium (Ce) accumulation potential, the distribution of Ce in bio-molecules, and ensuing biochemical responses were investigated in greater duckweed fronds when they were exposed to Ce (0, 10, 20, 40, and 60µM). There was a concentration dependent increase in Ce accumulation, which reached a maximum of 67mgg-1 of dry weight (DW) at 60µM Ce after 14 d. The Ce concentrations in bio-macromolecules followed the order: cellulose and pectin > proteins > polysaccharides > lipids. In response to Ce exposure, significant chlorosis; declines in growth, photosynthetic pigment and protein contents; and cell death were noted at the highest Ce concentration. Photosystem II inhibition, degradation of the reaction center protein D1, and damage to chloroplast ultrastructure were observed in Ce treated S. polyrhiza fronds, as revealed by chlorophyll a fluorescence transients, immunoblotting, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). O2.- accumulation and malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the treated fronds increased in a concentration dependent manner, which indicated that oxidative stress and unsaturated fatty acids (C18:3) were specifically affected by Ce exposure. These results suggest Ce exerts its toxic effects on photosynthesis, with a primary effect on PS II, through oxidative stress.

Oxidative effects, nutrients and metabolic changes in aquatic macrophyte, Elodea nuttallii, following exposure to lanthanum.

We investigated the phytoremediation potential of Elodea nuttallii to remove rare earth metals from contaminated water. The laboratory experiments were designed to assess the responses induced by lanthanum (5-20mgL(-1)) in E. nuttallii over a period of 7 days. The results showed that most La (approximately 85%) was associated with the cell wall. The addition of La to the culture medium reduced the concentration of K, Ca, Cu, Mg, and Mn. However, O2(·-) levels increased with a concomitant increase in the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration as the La concentration increased, which indicated that the cells were under oxidative stress. Significant reductions in the levels of chlorophyll (Chl) a, b, and carotenoids (Car) were observed in a concentration-dependent manner. However, the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), total non-protein thiols (TNP-SH) and phytochelatins (PCs) increased for all La concentrations. The results suggested that La was toxic to E. nuttallii because it induced oxidative stress and disturbed mineral uptake. However, E. nuttallii was able to combat La induced damage via an immobilization mechanism, which involved the cell wall and the activation of non-enzymatic antioxidant.

[Effects of Organic Fertilization on Bacterial Community and Maize Productivity in Dryland Red Soil].

Since 2002, a long-term field experiment has been conducted to determine the effects of different organic fertilization treatments on the bacterial community characteristics and maize productivity in dryland red soil using high-throughput sequencing technology. The experiment consisted of four treatments:no manure, M0; low manure, M1; high manure, M2; and high manure with lime addition, M3. Our results showed that the different organic fertilization treatments(M1, M2, and M3) significantly promoted maize productivity with the highest values of pH, soil organic matter(SOM), total nitrogen(TN), and total phosphorus(TP) compared to that under the M0 treatment, and the high manure with lime addition(M3) treatment had the highest level of maize production. The different organic fertilization treatments significantly increased the Shannon index, Evenness index, Chao1 index, and ACE index and significantly shaped the composition of the bacterial community. TP and pH were the main variables determining soil bacterial diversity index based on random forest modeling analysis, whereas pH, SOM, TP, and TN were the main variables determining the structure of the soil bacterial community. Correlation analysis and structural equation modeling determined that TP and SOM indirectly affected maize productivity by varying the bacterial diversity and community structure. The results of this study provide the scientific basis for ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural development by improving the fertility and bacterial diversity in dryland red soil.

Dynamic Responses of Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea and Bacteria Populations to Organic Material Amendments Affect Soil Nitrification and Nitrogen Use Efficiency.

Organic material amendments have been proposed as an effective strategy to promote soil health by enhancing soil fertility and promoting nitrogen (N) cycling and N use efficiency (NUE). Thus, it is important to investigate the extent to which the structure and function of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) differentially respond to the organic material amendments in field settings. Here, we conducted a 9-year field experiment to track the responses of AOA and AOB populations to the organic material amendments and measured the potential nitrification activity (PNA), plant productivity, and NUE in the plant rhizosphere interface. Our results revealed that the organic material amendments significantly enhanced the abundance and diversity of AOA and AOB populations. Further, significant differences were observed in the composition and co-occurrence network of AOA and AOB. A higher occurrence of potential competitive interactions between taxa and enumerated potential keystone taxa was observed in the AOA-AOB network. Moreover, we found that AOA was more important than AOB for PNA under the organic material amendments. Structural equation modeling suggested that the diversity of AOA and AOB populations induced by the potential competitive interactions with keystone taxa dynamically accelerated the rate of PNA, and positively affected plant productivity and NUE under the organic material amendments. Collectively, our study offers new insights into the ecology and functioning of ammonia oxidizers and highlights the positive effects of organic material amendments on nitrogen cycling dynamics.

Metabolic modifications to Ni excess in L. minor: Role of organic-, amino- and fatty acid profiles.

In this study, the effects of excess nickel (Ni) (100 µM and 200 µM) on growth, antioxidant production, fatty acid, organic and amino acids profiles were examined in Lemna minor L. After 7 days of Ni treatment, chlorosis, growth inhibition and ROS overproduction were observed, accompanied by Ni accumulation. Interestingly, decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were recorded in fronds upon Ni exposure. Fatty acid profiles in Ni-treated L. minor were characterized by increases in saturated- and decreases in unsaturated fatty acids. Ni excess increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), guiacol peroxidase (GPX), and glutathione reductase (GR), and non-enzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid (AsA); however, deactivation of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) activities were also observed. Disruption of amino acid metabolism in Ni-exposed fronds was evidenced by the accumulation of cysteine, arginine, threonine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine and phenylalanine, as well as reduced levels of tyrosine, alanine, aspartate and proline. Approximately 299%-396%, 139%-254% and 56%-97% concentration increments in citric, malic and oxalic acids, respectively, were concomitantly observed with significant decreases in tartaric, acetic, and fumaric acids in fronds subjected to Ni stress. Taken together, these results indicated that Ni stress induced negative effects on plant physiological, biochemical and morphological processes; however, it is likely that the coordination of metabolites and antioxidants may ameliorate the damaging effects of Ni accumulation.

Coupling Bacterial Community Assembly to Microbial Metabolism across Soil Profiles.

Soil microbial community assembly is crucial for understanding the mechanisms of microbial communities that regulate ecosystem-level functioning. The relative contributions of stochastic and deterministic processes to microbial community assembly remain poorly defined, and major questions exist concerning the soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics of microbial community assembly in deep soil. Here, the bacterial community assembly processes were explored across five soil profile depths (up to 80 cm) during a 15-year field experiment involving four fertilization regimes. We found that the bacterial community assembly was initially governed by deterministic selection in topsoil but was progressively structured by increasing stochastic dispersal with depth. The migration rate (m) and ß-null deviation pattern supported the hypothesis of a relatively greater influence of dispersal in deep soil, which was correlated with bacterial community assembly by stochastic processes. These changes in the entire community assembly reflected consistent assembly processes of the two most dominant phyla, Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi Structural equation modeling showed that soil features (pH and total phosphorus) and bacterial interactions (competition and network complexity) were significantly related to bacterial community assembly in the 0-to-10-cm and 10-to-20-cm layers. Partial Mantel tests, structural equation modeling, and random forest modeling consistently indicated a strong and significant correlation between bacterial community assemblages and SOC dynamics, implying that bacterial assembly processes would potentially suppress SOC metabolism and mineralization when the contributions of stochastic dispersal to communities increased in deeper layers. Our results have important implications for integrating bacterial community assembly processes into the predictions of SOC dynamics.IMPORTANCE We have provided a framework to better understand the mechanisms governing the balance between stochastic and deterministic processes and to integrate the shifts in community assembly processes with microbial carbon metabolism. Our study reinforced that environmental filtering and bacterial cooccurrence patterns influence the stochastic/deterministic continuum of soil bacterial community assembly and that stochasticity may act through deeper soil layers to influence carbon metabolism. Delineating theoretically the potential linkages between community assembly and SOC dynamics across a broad range of microbial systems represents an interesting topic for future research.

Organism body size structures the soil microbial and nematode community assembly at a continental and global scale.

Body size is a key life-history trait that influences community assembly by affecting how ecological processes operate at the organism level. However, the extent to which the relative influences of ecological processes mediate the assembly of differentially sized soil organisms is still unknown. Here, we investigate the community assembly of differentially sized soil microorganisms and microfauna using a continental-scale sampling effort combined with a global-scale meta-analysis. Our results reveal a general relationship between organism body size and the stochastic-deterministic balance operating on community assembly. The smallest microorganisms (bacteria) are relatively more influenced by dispersal-based stochastic processes, while larger ones (fungi, protists and nematodes) are more structured by selection-based deterministic processes. This study elucidates a significant and consistent relationship between an organism life-history trait and how distinct ecological processes operate in mediating their respective community assemblages, thus providing a better understanding of the mechanisms supporting soil biodiversity.

Trophic interactions as determinants of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community with cascading plant-promoting consequences.

BACKGROUND: The soil mycobiome is composed of a complex and diverse fungal community, which includes functionally diverse species ranging from plant pathogens to mutualists. Among the latter are arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) that provide phosphorous (P) to plants. While plant hosts and abiotic parameters are known to structure AMF communities, it remains largely unknown how higher trophic level organisms, including protists and nematodes, affect AMF abundance and community composition. RESULTS: Here, we explored the connections between AMF, fungivorous protists and nematodes that could partly reflect trophic interactions, and linked those to rhizosphere P dynamics and plant performance in a long-term manure application setting. Our results revealed that manure addition increased AMF biomass and the density of fungivorous nematodes, and tailored the community structures of AMF, fungivorous protists, and nematodes. We detected a higher abundance of AMF digested by the dominant fungivorous nematodes Aphelenchoides and Aphelenchus in high manure treatments compared to no manure and low manure treatments. Structural equation modeling combined with network analysis suggested that predation by fungivorous protists and nematodes stimulated AMF biomass and modified the AMF community composition. The mycorrhizal-fungivore interactions catalyzed AMF colonization and expression levels of the P transporter gene ZMPht1;6 in maize roots, which resulted in enhanced plant productivity. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights the importance of predation as a key element in shaping the composition and enhancing the biomass of AMF, leading to increased plant performance. As such, we clarify novel biological mechanism of the complex interactions between AMF, fungivorous protists, and nematodes in driving P absorption and plant performance. Video Abstract.

Competitive interaction with keystone taxa induced negative priming under biochar amendments.

BACKGROUND: Biochar amendments have been widely proposed as a conventional and efficient strategy to promote soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration via negative priming. Unfortunately, the extent and biological mechanisms responsible for biochar-induced negative priming are still not fully understood. Despite traditional explanations focused on the environmental filtering mechanisms of biochar amendments on microbial biomass and community composition underlying the priming effect on SOC dynamics, whether and how a biochar-induced competitive interaction with keystone taxa determines SOC mineralization in natural ecosystems has been minimally explored. RESULTS: Here, we paid particular attention to the relationships between the diversity and network structure of soil bacterial and fungal communities and SOC mineralization. A 3-year field experiment was conducted comprising five treatments: no fertilization, conventional fertilization, and conventional fertilization with three rates of biochar amendments. Biochar amendments considerably increased soil moisture capacity and pH and subsequently shaped the composition and co-occurrence networks of soil bacterial and fungal communities. Importantly, network analysis revealed that the biochar amendments triggered the competitive interaction with putative keystone taxa in the bacterial and fungal networks. Structural equation modeling suggested that the competitive interaction with keystone taxa promoted bacterial and fungal diversity and consequently reduced carbohydrate catabolism and soil metabolic quotient. Stable isotope probing incubations further provided consistent evidence of competition by keystone taxa with the increases in bacterial and fungal diversity under the biochar amendments. CONCLUSIONS: We found that biochar-induced competition with keystone taxa stimulated the bacterial and fungal diversity and consequently decreased SOC mineralization. The comprehensive understanding of the unexplored biological mechanisms underlying the biochar-induced negative priming may provide crucial implications for enabling SOC sequestration.

Correction to: Competitive interaction with keystone taxa induced negative priming under biochar amendments.

Following publication of the original article [1], the authors reported an error in the Additional file 1.

Exogenous polyamines enhance copper tolerance of Nymphoides peltatum.

The protective effects of polyamines (PAs) against copper (Cu) toxicity were investigated in the leaves of Nymphoides peltatum. Cu treatment increased the putrescine (Put) level and lowered spermidine (Spd) and spermine (Spm) levels, thereby reducing the (Spd+Spm)/Put ratio in leaves. Exogenous application of Spd or Spm markedly reversed these Cu-induced effects for all three PAs and partially restored the (Spd+Spm)/Put ratio in leaves. It also significantly enhanced the level of proline, retarded the loss of soluble protein, decreased the rate of O2*- generation and H2O2 content, and prevented Cu-induced lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, exogenous Spd and Spm reduced the accumulation of Cu and effectively maintained the balance of nutrient elements in plant leaves under Cu stress. These results suggest that exogenous application of Spd or Spm can enhance the tolerance of N. peltatum to Cu by increasing the levels of endogenous Spd and Spm as well as the (Spd+Spm)/Put ratio.

Physiological responses of Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb leaves to cadmium stress.

Aquatic macrophytes were found to be the potential scavengers of heavy metals from aquatic environment. In this study, several physiological responses of Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb leaves to elevated concentrations of cadmium (up to 10mM) were investigated. It was found that A. philoxeroides was able to accumulate cadmium in its leaves. The pigment contents decreased with the increase of the Cd concentrations. The Cd could induce rise of the activity of peroxidase (POD) at lower concentration (<5mM), however, when the concentration of Cd rose up to 10mM, the POD activity declined. The changes of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) activities were exactly opposite to that of POD. In the leaves of Cd-treated fronds, the amounts of three polypeptides with apparent molecular weights 80, 39 and 28kDa, respectively, were became visible in SDS-PAGE. The nature of these polypeptides remains to be determined.

Molecular distribution and toxicity assessment of praseodymium by Spirodela polyrrhiza.

Aquatic macrophytes are known to accumulate and bioconcentrate metals. In this study, the physiological, biochemical, and ultrastructural responses of Spirodela polyrrhiza to elevated concentrations of praseodymium (Pr), ranging from 0 to 60µM, were investigated over 20 d exposure. The results showed that the accumulation of Pr in S. polyrrhiza occurred in a concentration-dependent manner. The accumulation of Pr in biomacromolecules decreased in the order of cellulose and pectin (65-69%), crude proteins (18-25%), crude polysaccharides (6-10%), crude lipids (3%-4%). Significant increases in malondialdehyde (MDA), and decreases in photosynthetic pigment, soluble protein, and unsaturated fatty acids showed that Pr induced oxidative stress. Inhibitory effects on photosystem II and the degradation of the reaction center proteins D1 and D2 were revealed by chlorophyll a fluorescence transients, immunoblotting, and damage to chloroplast ultrastructure. Significant increases in cell death were observed in Pr-treated plants. However, S. polyrrhiza can combat Pr induced oxidative injury by activating various enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. These results will improve understanding of the biological consequences of rare earth elements (REEs) contamination, particularly in aquatic bodies.