Sub-classification of apraxia of speech in patients with cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases.

Some studies have hypothesized that primary progressive apraxia of speech (ppAOS) consists of heterogeneous symptoms that can be sub-classified; however, no study has classified stroke-induced AOS (sAOS) and ppAOS according to common criteria. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the symptoms and relevant brain regions associated with sAOS and ppAOS for sub-classification. Participants included 8 patients with sAOS following lesions in the left precentral gyrus and/or underlying white matter, and 3 patients with ppAOS. All patients with sAOS could be classified into three subtypes: type I, with prominent distorted articulation; type II, with prominent prosodic abnormalities or type III, with similarly distorted articulation and prosodic abnormalities. This sub-classification was consistent with the subtypes of ppAOS proposed in previous reports. All patients with ppAOS were classified as type III, and exhibited three characteristics distinguishable from those of sAOS. First, they showed prominent lengthened syllables compared with the segmentation of syllables. Second, they could not always complete the production of multi-syllabic single words in one breath. Finally, they showed dysfunctional lesions in the bilateral supplementary motor area. We conclude that sAOS and ppAOS can be sub-classified and are universal symptoms that are common between the English and Japanese populations.

Nitric oxide augments single persistent Na+ channel currents via the cGMP/PKG signaling pathway in Kenyon cells isolated from cricket mushroom bodies.

The nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic GMP signaling pathway has been suggested to be important in the formation of olfactory memory in insects. However, the molecular targets of the NO signaling cascade in the central neurons associated with olfactory learning and memory have not been fully analyzed. In this study, we investigated the effects of NO donors on single voltage-dependent Na+ channels in intrinsic neurons, called Kenyon cells, in the mushroom bodies in the brain of the cricket. Step depolarization on cell-attached patch membranes induces single-channel currents with fast-activating and -inactivating brief openings at the beginning of the voltage steps followed by more persistently recurring brief openings all along the 150-ms pulses. Application of the NO donor S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) increased the number of channel openings of both types of single Na+ channels. This excitatory effect of GSNO on the activity of these Na+ channels was diminished by KT5823, an inhibitor of protein kinase G (PKG), indicating an involvement of PKG in the downstream pathway of NO. Application of KT5823 alone decreased the activity of the persistent Na+ channels without significant effects on the fast-inactivating Na+ channels. The membrane-permeable cGMP analog 8Br-cGMP increased the number of channel openings of both types of single Na+ channels, similar to the action of NO. Taken together, these results indicate that NO acts as a critical modulator of both fast-inactivating and persistent Na+ channels and that persistent Na+ channels are constantly upregulated by the endogenous cGMP/PKG signaling cascade. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study clarified that nitric oxide (NO) increases the activity of both fast-inactivating and persistent Na+ channels via the cGMP/PKG signaling cascade in cricket Kenyon cells. The persistent Na+ channels are also found to be upregulated constantly by endogenous cGMP/PKG signaling. On the basis of the present results and the results of previous studies, we propose a hypothetical model explaining NO production and NO-dependent memory formation in cricket large Kenyon cells.

Nitric oxide/cGMP/PKG signaling pathway activated by M1-type muscarinic acetylcholine receptor cascade inhibits Na+-activated K+ currents in Kenyon cells.

The interneurons of the mushroom body, known as Kenyon cells, are essential for the long-term memory of olfactory associative learning in some insects. Some studies have reported that nitric oxide (NO) is strongly related to this long-term memory in Kenyon cells. However, the target molecules and upstream and downstream NO signaling cascades are not completely understood. Here we analyzed the effect of the NO signaling cascade on Na(+)-activated K(+) (KNa) channel activity in Kenyon cells of crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus). We found that two different NO donors, S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) and S-nitroso-N-acetyl-dl-penicillamine (SNAP), strongly suppressed KNa channel currents. Additionally, this inhibitory effect of GSNO on KNa channel activity was diminished by 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), an inhibitor of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), and KT5823, an inhibitor of protein kinase G (PKG). Next, we analyzed the role of ACh in the NO signaling cascade. ACh strongly suppressed KNa channel currents, similar to NO donors. Furthermore, this inhibitory effect of ACh was blocked by pirenzepine, an M1 muscarinic ACh receptor antagonist, but not by 1,1-dimethyl-4-diphenylacetoxypiperidinium iodide (4-DAMP) and mecamylamine, an M3 muscarinic ACh receptor antagonist and a nicotinic ACh receptor antagonist, respectively. The ACh-induced inhibition of KNa channel currents was also diminished by the PLC inhibitor U73122 and the calmodulin antagonist W-7. Finally, we found that ACh inhibition was blocked by the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME). These results suggested that the ACh signaling cascade promotes NO production by activating NOS and NO inhibits KNa channel currents via the sGC/cGMP/PKG signaling cascade in Kenyon cells.

Functional coupling between sodium-activated potassium channels and voltage-dependent persistent sodium currents in cricket Kenyon cells.

In this study, we examined the functional coupling between Na(+)-activated potassium (KNa) channels and Na(+) influx through voltage-dependent Na(+) channels in Kenyon cells isolated from the mushroom body of the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. Single-channel activity of KNa channels was recorded with the cell-attached patch configuration. The open probability (Po) of KNa channels increased with increasing Na(+) concentration in a bath solution, whereas it decreased by the substitution of Na(+) with an equimolar concentration of Li(+). The Po of KNa channels was also found to be reduced by bath application of a high concentration of TTX (1 µM) and riluzole (100 µM), which inhibits both fast (INaf) and persistent (INaP) Na(+) currents, whereas it was unaffected by a low concentration of TTX (10 nM), which selectively blocks INaf. Bath application of Cd(2+) at a low concentration (50 µM), as an inhibitor of INaP, also decreased the Po of KNa channels. Conversely, bath application of the inorganic Ca(2+)-channel blockers Co(2+) and Ni(2+) at high concentrations (500 µM) had little effect on the Po of KNa channels, although Cd(2+) (500 µM) reduced the Po of KNa channels. Perforated whole cell clamp analysis further indicated the presence of sustained outward currents for which amplitude was dependent on the amount of Na(+) influx. Taken together, these results indicate that KNa channels could be activated by Na(+) influx passing through voltage-dependent persistent Na(+) channels. The functional significance of this coupling mechanism was discussed in relation to the membrane excitability of Kenyon cells and its possible role in the formation of long-term memory.

Utility of early post-treatment single-photon emission computed tomography imaging to predict outcome in stroke patients treated with intravenous tissue plasminogen activator.

It is important to predict the outcome of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)-treated patients early after the treatment for considering the post-tPA treatment option. We assessed cerebral blood flow (CBF) of tPA-treated patients with single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) 1 hour after tPA infusion to predict the patient outcome. Technetium-99m-hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime SPECT was performed in 35 consecutive tPA-treated patients. Asymmetry index, a contralateral-to-ipsilateral ratio of CBF, was calculated to analyze CBF quantitatively. Hypoperfusion or hyperperfusion was defined as a decrease of 25% or more or a increase of 25% or more in asymmetry index, respectively. Of all 35 patients, 23 had only hypoperfusion, 8 had both hypoperfusion and hyperperfusion, 2 had only hyperperfusion, and 2 had no perfusion abnormality. When evaluating the association between hypoperfusion and outcome, hypoperfusion volumes were significantly correlated with the modified Rankin Scale at 3 months (r = .634, P < .001). Hyperperfusion was observed in 10 patients (28.6%) and they showed a marked National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score improvement in the first 24-hour period, which were significantly greater than those of 25 patients without hyperperfusion (P = .033). Eight patients (22.9%) with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) were all asymptomatic. Most ICHs were located in hypoperfusion areas, and no ICH was related to hyperperfusion. The results of the present study demonstrated that hypoperfusion volume was associated with poor outcome, whereas the presence of hyperperfusion seemed to be predictive of symptom improvement but not of development of ICH. Taken together, early post-treatment SPECT imaging seems to be a useful biomarker of outcome in tPA-treated patients.

A novel GABAergic action mediated by functional coupling between GABAB-like receptor and two different high-conductance K+ channels in cricket Kenyon cells.

The γ-aminobutyric acid type B (GABA(B)) receptor has been shown to attenuate high-voltage-activated Ca(2+) currents and enhance voltage-dependent or inwardly rectifying K(+) currents in a variety of neurons. In this study, we report a novel coupling of GABA(B)-like receptor with two different high-conductance K(+) channels, Na(+)-activated K(+) (K(Na)) channel and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (K(Ca)) channel, in Kenyon cells isolated from the mushroom body of the cricket brain. Single-channel activities of K(Na) and K(Ca) channels in response to bath applications of GABA and the GABA(B)-specific agonist SKF97541 were recorded with the cell-attached patch configuration. The open probability (P(o)) of both K(Na) and K(Ca) channels was found to be increased by bath application of GABA, and this increase in Po was antagonized by coapplication of the GABAB antagonist CGP54626, suggesting that GABA(B)-like receptors mediate these actions. Similarly, GABA(B)-specific agonist SKF97541 increased the Po of both K(Na) and K(Ca) channels. Perforated-patch recordings using ß-escin further revealed that SKF97541 increased the amplitude of the outward currents elicited by step depolarizations. Under current-clamp conditions, SKF97541 decreased the firing frequency of spontaneous action potential (AP) and changed the AP waveform. The amplitude and duration of AP were decreased, whereas the afterhyperpolarization of AP was increased. Resting membrane potential, however, was not significantly altered by SKF97541. Taken together, these results suggest that GABA(B)-like receptor is functionally coupled with both K(Na) and K(Ca) channels and this coupling mechanism may serve to prevent AP formation and limit excitatory synaptic input.

[A case of combined glossopharyngeal and trigeminal neuralgia].

It is well-known that idiopathic neuralgias of the trigeminal and glossopharyngeal nerves are caused by vascular compression at the root entry zone of the cranial nerves. Because they are functional diseases, initial treatment is medical, especially with carbamazepine. However, if medical therapy fails to adequately manage the pain, microvascular decompression (MVD) is prescribed. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is rare, and combined trigeminal and glossopharyngeal neuralgia is an extremely rare disorder. A 70-year-old woman presented herself to Hokkaido Neurosurgical Memorial Hospital because of paroxysms of lancinating pain in her left pharynx and another lancinating pain in her left cheek. Carbamazepine, which was prescribed at another hospital, favorably relieved the pain; however, drug eruption compelled her to discontinue the medication. The multi-volume method revealed that a root entry zone of the left glossopharyngeal nerve was compressed by the left posterior inferior cerebellar artery, and the left trigeminal artery was compressed by the left superior cerebellar artery. MVD for both nerves was performed employing a left lateral suboccipital craniotomy. She experienced complete relief of pain immediately after MVD. Combined trigeminal and glossopharyngeal neuralgia is extremely rare, but some groups noted a relatively high incidence of concurrent trigeminal neuralgia in patients with glossopharyngeal neuralgia up until the 1970's. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia includes pain near the gonion; therefore, there is an overlap of symptoms between glossopharyngeal and trigeminal neuralgias. By virtue of recent progress in imaging technology, minute preoperative evaluations of microvascular compression are possible. Until the 1970's, there might have been some misunderstanding regarding the overlap of symptoms because of lack of the concept of microvascular compression as a cause of neuralgia and rudimentary imaging technology. Minute evaluations of both symptoms and imaging are very important.

Intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated potassium channels are activated by functional coupling with stretch-activated nonselective cation channels in cricket myocytes.

Cooperative gating of localized ion channels ranges from fine-tuning excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells to controlling pace-making activity in the heart. Membrane deformation resulting from muscle contraction activates stretch-activated (SA) cation channels. The subsequent Ca2+ influx activates spatially localized Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels to fine-tune spontaneous muscle contraction. To characterize endogenously expressed intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated potassium (IK) channels and assess the functional relevance of the extracellular Ca2+ source leading to IK channel activity, we performed patch-clamp techniques on cricket oviduct myocytes and recorded single-channel data. In this study, we first investigated the identification of IK channels that could be distinguished from endogenously expressed large-conductance Ca2+-activated potassium (BK) channels by adding extracellular Ba2+. The single-channel conductance of the IK channel was 62 pS, and its activity increased with increasing intracellular Ca2+ concentration but was not voltage-dependent. These results indicated that IK channels are endogenously expressed in cricket oviduct myocytes. Second, the Ca2+ influx pathway that activates the IK channel was investigated. The absence of extracellular Ca2+ or the presence of Gd3+ abolished the activity of IK channels. Finally, we investigated the proximity between SA and IK channels. The removal of extracellular Ca2+, administration of Ca2+ to the microscopic region in a pipette, and application of membrane stretching stimulation increased SA channel activity, followed by IK channel activity. Membrane stretch-induced SA and IK channel activity were positively correlated. However, the emergence of IK channel activity and its increase in response to membrane mechanical stretch was not observed without Ca2+ in the pipette. These results strongly suggest that IK channels are endogenously expressed in cricket oviduct myocytes and that IK channel activity is regulated by neighboring SA channel activity. In conclusion, functional coupling between SA and IK channels may underlie the molecular basis of spontaneous rhythmic contractions.

BK Channels Are Activated by Functional Coupling With L-Type Ca2+ Channels in Cricket Myocytes.

Large-conductance calcium (Ca2+)-activated potassium (K+) (BK) channel activation is important for feedback control of Ca2+ influx and cell excitability during spontaneous muscle contraction. To characterize endogenously expressed BK channels and evaluate the functional relevance of Ca2+ sources leading to BK activity, patch-clamp electrophysiology was performed on cricket oviduct myocytes to obtain single-channel recordings. The single-channel conductance of BK channels was 120 pS, with increased activity resulting from membrane depolarization or increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Extracellular application of tetraethylammonium (TEA) and iberiotoxin (IbTX) suppressed single-channel current amplitude. These results indicate that BK channels are endogenously expressed in cricket oviduct myocytes. Ca2+ release from internal Ca2+ stores and Ca2+ influx via the plasma membrane, which affect BK activity, were investigated. Extracellular Ca2+ removal nullified BK activity. Administration of ryanodine and caffeine reduced BK activity. Administration of L-type Ca2+ channel activity regulators (Bay K 8644 and nifedipine) increased and decreased BK activity, respectively. Finally, the proximity between the L-type Ca2+ channel and BK was investigated. Administration of Bay K 8644 to the microscopic area within the pipette increased BK activity. However, this increase was not observed at a sustained depolarizing potential. These results show that BK channels are endogenously expressed in cricket oviduct myocytes and that BK activity is regulated by L-type Ca2+ channel activity and Ca2+ release from Ca2+ stores. Together, these results show that functional coupling between L-type Ca2+ and BK channels may underlie the molecular basis of spontaneous rhythmic contraction.

Secondary Chiari malformation due to enlarged spinal arachnoid villi-like structure: illustrative case.

BACKGROUND: Secondary Chiari malformation can be caused by various disorders associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage at the spinal level. In this report, the authors describe a rare case of secondary Chiari malformation caused by excessive CSF absorption through the enlarged spinal arachnoid villi-like structure. OBSERVATIONS: A 20-year-old woman presented with progressive severe headache and posterior neck pain. Magnetic resonance imaging showed tonsillar herniation and decreased subarachnoid space around the spinal cord. A hypointense signal area was observed in the ventral spinal canal on a T2-weighted image. An axial image revealed multiple small, arachnoid cyst-like structures at the right T1 nerve root sleeve. Direct surgery revealed that the cyst-like structures were continuous with the arachnoid membrane and protruded into the abnormally large epidural venous sinus. The cyst-like structures were resected, and the dural sleeve was repaired using fascia. The patient showed good improvement of symptoms after surgery. LESSONS: Excessive CSF absorption through the enlarged spinal arachnoid villi-like structure can cause secondary Chiari malformation. Neurosurgeons should be aware of this unusual mechanism of CSF leakage. Simple posterior fossa decompression will be ineffective or even harmful.

Pathophysiology and surgical treatment of spinal adhesive arachnoid pathology: patient series.

BACKGROUND: Spinal adhesive arachnoid pathology is a rare cause of myelopathy. Because of rarity and variability, mechanisms of myelopathy are unknown. The authors retrospectively analyzed patients to understand pathophysiology and provide implications for surgical treatment. OBSERVATIONS: Nineteen consecutive patients were studied. Thirteen patients had a secondary pathology due to etiological disorders such as spinal surgery or hemorrhagic events. They received arachnoid lysis (4 patients), syringo-subarachnoid (S-S) shunt (8 patients) with or without lysis, or anterior decompression. Three of them developed motor deterioration after lysis, and 6 patients needed further 8 surgeries. Another 6 patients had idiopathic pathology showing dorsal arachnoid cyst formation at the thoracic level that was surgically resected. With mean follow-up of 44.3 months, only 4 patients with the secondary pathology showed improved neurological grade, whereas all patients with idiopathic pathology showed improvement. LESSONS: The idiopathic pathology was the localized dorsal arachnoid adhesion that responded to surgical treatment. The secondary pathology produced disturbed venous circulation of the spinal cord by extensive adhesions. Lysis of the thickened fibrous membrane with preservation of thin arachnoid over the spinal veins may provide safe decompression. S-S shunt was effective if the syrinx extended to the level of normal subarachnoid space.

[A case of subarachnoid hemorrhage presenting with supplementary motor aphasia as an initial symptom].

Supplementary motor aphasia results from impairment of the supplementary motor area in the left mesial frontal cortex. We report a rare case of subarachnoid hemorrhage presenting with supplementary motor aphasia as an initial symptom. A 52-year-old woman was brought to our hospital by ambulance due to sudden severe headache and supplementary motor aphasia. CT demonstrated subarachnoid hemorrhage that appeared to be particularly thick in the pericallosal cistern. She had undergone neck clipping of a left vertebral artery aneurysm for subarachnoid hemorrhage 14 years earlier. At that time, she underwent neck clipping of a de novo anterior communicating artery aneurysm. The postoperative course was uneventful and supplementary motor aphasia had disappeared in 4 weeks. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of subarachnoid hemorrhage presenting with supplementary motor aphasia as an initial symptom. In this case, adhesion of the arachnoid membrane resulting from old subarachnoid hemorrhage might have prevented new subarachnoid hemorrhage from spreading diffusely. Hematomas spread mainly into the pericallosal cistern from ruptured aneurysm of the anterior communicating artery. Therefore, thick hematoma in this cistern might have compressed the supplementary motor area, resulting in supplementary motor aphasia. Aphasia disappeared as pressure from the hematoma dissipated. Neurosurgeons may be likely to encounter a patient showing a transient consciousness disturbance after the use of the anterior interhemispheric approach or within a period of vascular spasm. Supplementary motor aphasia might also be included in such consciousness disturbance. Supplementary motor aphasia might be a reversible symptom if there is no irreversible damage to the supplementary motor area by infarction or intraparenchymal hemorrhage.

A restricted subarachnoid hemorrhage in the cortical sulcus in cerebral amyloid angiopathy: could it be a warning sign?

BACKGROUND: Cerebral amyloid angiopathy is a well-known disease that is predominantly recognized in elderly people and repeatedly causes large subcortical hemorrhages. These hemorrhages may be derived from vessel wall weakness because of Abeta depositions in the wall of the cortical and leptomeningeal arteries. Although vessel ruptures in CAA have been thought to occur in cortical arteries, it was recently demonstrated that the primary hemorrhage occurs in the subarachnoid space, particularly the cerebral sulci, as a result of multiple ruptures of meningeal arteries in some cases of subcortical hematoma caused by CAA. CASE DESCRIPTION: Case patient 1 was a 74-year-old woman who presented with epileptic seizure. A restricted SAH in the right frontal lobe was observed on MRI. Thirty-three days later, left hemiparesis occurred suddenly and a huge subcortical hematoma was observed in the right frontal lobe on CT. The hematoma was removed, and the patient was pathologically diagnosed with amyloid angiopathy. Case patient 2 was a 73-year-old man who presented with epileptic seizure. A restricted SAH in the right frontal lobe was observed on MRI. Twenty days later, left hemiparesis occurred suddenly and a huge subcortical hematoma was observed in the right frontoparietal area on CT. Hematoma removal was performed on both patients, and they were diagnosed pathologically with amyloid angiopathy. CONCLUSIONS: We report on the cases of 2 patients with CAA who presented with epileptic seizure and were found to have a restricted subarachnoid hematoma in the cerebral sulcus on MRI before their subcortical hemorrhages occurred. Both cases were diagnosed pathologically. This demonstrated that vessel ruptures in CAA can occur in the subarachnoid space, particularly the cerebral sulci, as a result of ruptures of meningeal arteries. A restricted SAH on CT/MRI could be a warning sign of a huge subcortical hemorrhage in CAA.

Calcified vestibular schwannoma in the cerebellopontine angle.

Although vestibular schwannoma is a common tumor in the cerebellopontine angle, calcified vestibular schwannoma is rare. A 59-year-old woman with sudden onset epileptic seizures, was referred to Hokkaido Neurosurgical Memorial Hospital. Neurological examination revealed left Bruns nystagmus, left deafness and left cerebellar ataxia. Brain MRI revealed a mass, about 3cm in diameter, in the left cerebellopontine angle. The mass showed heterogeneous intensity on T1- and T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images. Hydrocephalus was seen. On CT scan, the tumor was calcified. Preoperatively, vestibular schwannoma, meningioma, cavernous hemangioma, or thrombosed giant aneurysm were considered as differential diagnoses. The pathological diagnosis was schwannoma. For a calcified mass in the cerebellopontine angle, vestibular schwannoma should be considered in the differential diagnosis to plan appropriate treatment strategies.

Localized reversible high signal intensities on diffusion-weighted MRI in hypoglycemia: A study of 70 cases.

INTRODUCTION: It is well-known that localized reversible high signal intensities in the splenium of the corpus callosum or the basal ganglia appear on diffusion-weighted MRI in the presence of hypoglycemia. The aim of this study was to clarify the incidence and significance of such high signal intensity lesions. RESULTS: We analyzed 70 cases of hypoglycemia with consciousness disturbance referred to our outpatient office. Localized reversible high signal intensities on diffusion-weighted MRI were noted in 6 cases (8.6%). They were at the splenium of the corpus callosum in four cases (5.7%), and right frontal cortex and bilateral frontal white matter in one each. Convulsions were noted in five cases, and right hemiparesis was noted in three. None of the three cases of hemiparesis showed localized reversible high signal intensities on diffusion-weighted MRI. These lesions are reversible if the patients undergo treatment without delay. CONCLUSION: The significance of these lesions is still unclear. However, when a high signal intensity lesion that is not reasonable for the symptom is detected on diffusion-weighted MRI, an immediate check of the blood sugar level is mandatory.

Neuroendoscopic transventricular ventriculocystostomy in treatment for intracranial cysts.

OBJECT: Although in recent years endoscopic procedures have been used for intracranial arachnoid cysts with favorable preliminary results in certain locations, optimal surgical treatment is still controversial. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of endoscopic transventricular ventriculocystostomy in the treatment of intracranial cysts based on the concept of normalizing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics. METHODS: Twelve symptomatic pediatric patients with congenital intracranial cysts underwent surgery at Jikei University in Tokyo. A neuroendoscopic transventricular ventriculocystostomy was performed in nine patients and an endoscope-assisted craniotomy in the remaining three. Endoscopy was performed using a freehand maneuver with a newly designed rigid-rod neuroendoscope that is frameless and has a small diameter. Clinical results were good in all patients, although cysts in three were not prominently reduced in size when follow-up imaging studies were performed. Neither death nor symptomatic morbidity occurred, and no patient required shunt placement. In three cases the endoscopic fenestration was associated with an endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV). Postoperative CSF dynamics studies consisting of computerized tomography ventriculocysternography, and pre- and postoperative cine-mode magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated free communication between fenestrated cysts and ventricular/ cistern CSF pathways consistent with normalization of CSF dynamics. CONCLUSIONS: Neuroendoscopic transventricular ventriculocystostomy constitutes a valid alternative to microsurgery for intracranial cysts located within or adjacent to the ventricles. It creates an effective CSF flow within the cyst with minimal alteration of subarachnoid spaces. It may be combined with an ETV procedure in case of obstruction of CSF pathways and should be preferred to the insertion of shunts.

Nitric oxide augments single Ca(2+) channel currents via cGMP-dependent protein kinase in Kenyon cells isolated from the mushroom body of the cricket brain.

Behavioral and pharmacological studies in insects have suggested that the nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic GMP (cGMP) signaling pathway is involved in the formation of long-term memory (LTM) associated with olfactory learning. However, the target molecules of NO and the downstream signaling pathway are still not known. In this study, we investigated the action of NO on single voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels in the intrinsic neurons known as Kenyon cells within the mushroom body of the cricket brain, using the cell-attached configuration of the patch-clamp technique. Application of the NO donor S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) increased the open probability (NPO) of single Ca(2+) channel currents. This GSNO-induced increase was blocked by ODQ, a soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) inhibitor, suggesting that the NO generated by GSNO acts via sGC to raise cGMP levels. The membrane-permeable cGMP analog 8-Bro-cGMP also increased the NPO of single Ca(2+) channel currents. Pretreatment of cells with KT5823, a protein kinase G blocker, abolished the excitatory effect of GSNO. These results suggest that NO augments the activity of single Ca(2+) channels via the cGMP/PKG signaling pathway. To gain insight into the physiological role of NO, we examined the effect of GSNO on action potentials of Kenyon cells under current-clamp conditions. Application of GSNO increased the frequency of action potentials elicited by depolarizing current injections, indicating that NO acts as a modulator resulting in a stimulatory signal in Kenyon cells. We discuss the increased Ca(2+) influx through these Ca(2+) channels via the NO/cGMP signaling cascade in relation to the formation of olfactory LTM.

Signaling pathway underlying the octopaminergic modulation of myogenic contraction in the cricket lateral oviduct.

Octopamine (OA), a biogenic monoamine, is a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in invertebrates. Here, we report the effect of OA on the spontaneous rhythmic contractions (SRCs) of the lateral oviduct of the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus and the possible signaling pathway involved. Application of OA increased both the frequency and amplitude of SRCs in a dose-dependent manner. The effect of OA was inhibited by subsequent application of the OA receptor antagonist epinastine, indicating that the action of OA is mediated by OA receptor. To investigate the predominant signaling pathway underlying the action of OA, we first examined a possible involvement of the cAMP/cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway. Application of the membrane-permeable cAMP analog 8-Br-cAMP had little effect on SRCs and the effect of OA was not influenced by subsequent application of the PKA inhibitor H89, indicating that the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway is not the predominant pathway in the action of OA. Next, we examined a possible involvement of the second messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate in the action of OA. The effect of OA on SRCs was inhibited by subsequent application of the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U73122, indicating that the PLC pathway is involved in the action of OA. The OA-induced increase in the frequency of SRCs was inhibited by pretreatment of the cell with the ryanodine receptor antagonist tetracaine but was not significantly affected by the IP3 receptor antagonist 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB). On the other hand, the OA-induced increase in the amplitude of SRCs was inhibited by pretreatment of the cells with 2-APB but was not significantly affected by tetracaine. Taken together, these results suggest that the OA-induced excitatory effect on SRCs is mediated by the PLC signaling pathway: Ca2+ release from IP3 receptors may contribute to the modulation of the amplitude of SRCs, whereas Ca2+ release from ryanodine receptors may contribute to the modulation of the frequency of SRCs.

Involvement of plasma membrane Ca2+ channels, IP3 receptors, and ryanodine receptors in the generation of spontaneous rhythmic contractions of the cricket lateral oviduct.

In the present study, the isolated cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus) lateral oviduct exhibited spontaneous rhythmic contractions (SRCs) with a frequency of 0.29±0.009 Hz (n=43) and an amplitude of 14.6±1.25 mg (n=29). SRCs completely disappeared following removal of extracellular Ca2+ using a solution containing 5mM EGTA. Application of the non-specific Ca2+ channel blockers Co2+, Ni2+, and Cd2+ also decreased both the frequency and amplitude of SRCs in dose-dependent manners, suggesting that Ca2+ entry through plasma membrane Ca2+ channels is essential for the generation of SRCs. Application of ryanodine (30 µM), which depletes intracellular Ca2+ by locking ryanodine receptor (RyR)-Ca2+ channels in an open state, gradually reduced the frequency and amplitude of SRCs. A RyR antagonist, tetracaine, reduced both the frequency and amplitude of SRCs, whereas a RyR activator, caffeine, increased the frequency of SRCs with a subsequent increase in basal tonus, indicating that RyRs are essential for generating SRCs. To further investigate the involvement of phospholipase C (PLC) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) in SRCs, we examined the effect of a PLC inhibitor, U73122, and an IP3R antagonist, 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), on SRCs. Separately, U73122 (10 µM) and 2-APB (30-50 µM) both significantly reduced the amplitude of SRCs with little effect on their frequency, further indicating that the PLC/IP3R signaling pathway is fundamental to the modulation of the amplitude of SRCs. A hypotonic-induced increase in the frequency and amplitude of SRCs and a hypertonic-induced decrease in the frequency and amplitude of SRCs indicated that mechanical stretch of the lateral oviduct is involved in the generation of SRCs. The sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-pump ATPase inhibitors thapsigargin and cyclopiazonic acid impaired or suppressed the relaxation phase of SRCs. Taken together, the present results indicate that Ca2+ influx through plasma membrane Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ release from RyRs play an essential role in pacing SRCs and that Ca2+ release from IP3Rs may play a role in modulating the amplitude of SRCs, probably via activation of PLC.