Cysteine- and glycine-rich protein 1a is involved in spinal cord regeneration in adult zebrafish.

In contrast to mammals, adult zebrafish have the ability to regrow descending axons and gain locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI). In zebrafish, a decisive factor for successful spinal cord regeneration is the inherent ability of some neurons to regrow their axons via (re)expressing growth-associated genes during the regeneration period. The nucleus of the medial longitudinal fascicle (NMLF) is one of the nuclei capable of regenerative response after SCI. Using microarray analysis with laser capture microdissected NMLF, we show that cysteine- and glycine-rich protein (CRP)1a (encoded by the csrp1a gene in zebrafish), the function of which is largely unknown in the nervous system, was upregulated after SCI. In situ hybridization confirmed the upregulation of csrp1a expression in neurons during the axon growth phase after SCI, not only in the NMLF, but also in other nuclei capable of regeneration, such as the intermediate reticular formation and superior reticular formation. The upregulation of csrp1a expression in regenerating nuclei started at 3 days after SCI and continued to 21 days post-injury, the longest time point studied. In vivo knockdown of CRP1a expression using two different antisense morpholino oligonucleotides impaired axon regeneration and locomotor recovery when compared with a control morpholino, demonstrating that CRP1a upregulation is an important part of the innate regeneration capability in injured neurons of adult zebrafish. This study is the first to demonstrate the requirement of CRP1a for zebrafish spinal cord regeneration.

MicroRNA miR-133b is essential for functional recovery after spinal cord injury in adult zebrafish.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles during development and also in adult organisms by regulating the expression of multiple target genes. Here, we studied the function of miR-133b during zebrafish spinal cord regeneration and show upregulation of miR-133b expression in regenerating neurons of the brainstem after transection of the spinal cord. miR-133b has been shown to promote tissue regeneration in other tissue, but its ability to do so in the nervous system has yet to be tested. Inhibition of miR-133b expression by antisense morpholino (MO) application resulted in impaired locomotor recovery and reduced regeneration of axons from neurons in the nucleus of the medial longitudinal fascicle, superior reticular formation and intermediate reticular formation. miR-133b targets the small GTPase RhoA, which is an inhibitor of axonal growth, as well as other neurite outgrowth-related molecules. Our results indicate that miR-133b is an important determinant in spinal cord regeneration of adult zebrafish through reduction in RhoA protein levels by direct interaction with its mRNA. While RhoA has been studied as a therapeutic target in spinal cord injury, this is the first demonstration of endogenous regulation of RhoA by a microRNA that is required for spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish. The ability of miR-133b to suppress molecules that inhibit axon regrowth may underlie the capacity for adult zebrafish to recover locomotor function after spinal cord injury.

Mental Health Literacy Affects Mental Health Attitude: Is There a Gender Difference?

Objectives: In the current study, we aimed to compare the levels of and factors associated with mental health attitude between males and females. Of particular interest was ascertaining the degree to which mental health literacy was related to mental health attitude and whether this relationship would vary by gender. Methods: A total of 732 participants aged 18 years or more were recruited from attendees at the 2016 Minnesota State Fair. We used the Mental Health Literacy Scale (MHLS) to measure attitude toward and literacy of mental health. Results: Our multivariate analysis reported that males' mental health attitude was significantly lower than females. Some factors associated with mental health attitude differed by gender as well. Among men, receiving more social support, experiencing higher levels of depression, and being married predicted greater mental health attitude. Among women, older age was associated with lower mental health attitude levels. However, mental health literacy was the strongest factor regardless of gender. Men and women with greater mental health literacy had a more positive mental health attitude. Conclusions: Provision of tailored mental health literacy education both for males and females could potentially improve the public's mental health attitude toward mental illness.

Induction and subcellular localization of high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in the postischemic rat brain.

High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) was originally identified as a ubiquitously expressed, abundant nonhistone DNA-binding protein. Recently, it was found to act as a cytokine-like mediator of delayed endotoxin lethality and of acute lung injury. Previously, we reported that HMGB1 is massively released extracellularly and plays a cytokine-like function in the postischemic brain. In the present study, we examined the expression profile and cellular distribution of HMGB1 in rat brain after transient focal cerebral ischemia. The expression of HMGB1 in infarction areas in the ipsilateral sides gradually declined over 2 days after 1 hr of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) to below the basal level. However, after 3 days of reperfusion, HMGB1 level increased to above the basal level, especially in infarction cores, and this delayed induction was then maintained for several days. Immunohistochemistry using a polyclonal antibody against HMGB1 revealed its detailed expression pattern and subcellular localization in the postischemic brain. HMGB1 was found to be widely expressed throughout the normal brain and to be localized to the nuclei of almost all neurons and oligodendrocyte-like cells. After 1 hr of MCAO, HMGB1 immediately translocated from the neuron nuclei to the cytoplasm and subsequently was depleted from neurons during the excitotoxicity-induced acute damaging process. Moreover, beginning 2 days after reperfusion, HMGB1 was notably induced in activated microglia, astrocytes, and in microvascular structures, and these delayed gradual inductions were sustained for several days. These findings suggest that HMGB1 functions as a cytokine-like mediator in a paracrine and autocrine manner in the postischemic brain.

HMGB1, a novel cytokine-like mediator linking acute neuronal death and delayed neuroinflammation in the postischemic brain.

Cerebral ischemic injury proceeds with excitotoxicity-induced acute neuronal death in the ischemic core and with delayed damage processes in the penumbra. However, knowledge concerning the direct mediators that connect these two processes is limited. Here, we demonstrate that high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nonhistone DNA-binding protein, is massively released into the extracellular space immediately after ischemic insult and that it subsequently induces neuroinflammation in the postischemic brain. Short hairpin (sh)RNA-mediated HMGB1 downregulation in the postischemic brain suppressed infarct size, microglia activation, and proinflammatory marker induction, indicating that HMGB1 plays a crucial role in the inflammatory process. The proinflammatory cytokine-like function of extracellular HMGB1 was further verified in primary cortical cultures and microglial cultures. HMGB1 was found to accumulate in NMDA-treated primary cortical culture media, and supernatants collected from these cultures were found to trigger microglia activation, the hallmark of brain inflammation. Moreover, treatment with recombinant HMGB1 also induced microglial activation, but HMGB1-depleted supernatant produced by anti-HMGB1 antibody treatment or by HMGB1 shRNA expression did not, thus demonstrating the essential role of HMGB1 in microglial activation. Together, these results indicate that HMGB1 functions as a novel proinflammatory cytokine-like factor that connects excitotoxicity-induced acute damage processes and delayed inflammatory processes in the postischemic brain.

Inhibition of the cerebral ischemic injury by ethyl pyruvate with a wide therapeutic window.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Ethyl pyruvate (EP) is a pyruvate derivative that has been reported recently to prevent lethality in mice with established lethal sepsis and systemic inflammation. In this study, we examined the neuroprotective effect of EP in a rat cerebral ischemia model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 1 hour of MCAO, and EP was administered at various time points before or after MCAO. The changes in the brain infarction, neurological deficits, microglia activation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression were evaluated. BV2 microglial cells were also used to access the anti-inflammatory effect of EP. RESULTS: The administration of EP intraperitoneally at 30 minutes before or at 4 or 12 hours after MCAO reduced the infarct volume to 10.3+/-3.4% (n=6; P<0.05), 21.5+/-2.7% (n=6; P<0.05), and 44.3+/-4.0% (n=6; P<0.05), respectively, of that of the control group. The significant reduction in infarct volume was accompanied by the suppression of the clinical manifestations associated with cerebral ischemia, including motor impairment and neurological deficits, microglial activation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression. The neuroprotective effect of EP was yet evident when it was administered as late as 24 hours after MCAO/reperfusion (76.5+/-4.70%; n=6; P<0.05). EP suppressed lipopolysaccharide induced activation of BV2 cells, as was evidenced by a reduction in NO release and the accompanying induction of proinflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that EP affords the strong protection of the delayed cerebral ischemic injury with a wide therapeutic window.

Anti-inflammatory mechanism is involved in ethyl pyruvate-mediated efficacious neuroprotection in the postischemic brain.

Ethyl pyruvate (EP) is a pyruvate derivative, and has recently been reported to prevent lethality in mice with established lethal sepsis and systemic inflammation. In a previous study, we reported that EP has a neuroprotective effect in a rat cerebral ischemia model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), in which it was found to be effective when injected as late as 12 h after MCAO/reperfusion. In the present study, we show that therapeutic window of pyruvate in this MCAO animal model is limited to 1 h (30 min before and 30 min after MCAO). Moreover, both pyruvate and EP have a neuroprotective effect during oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) or H2O2 challenge in primary cortical culture. In contrast, EP suppressed the LPS-induced activation of primary microglia in culture, but pyruvate did not. The suppression of microglia activation was evidenced by a reduction in nitric oxide release and by a proinflammatory factor induction in primary microglia culture, which were accompanied by the repression of nuclear factor-kappaB activation. These results suggest that EP has a strong protective effect and a wide therapeutic window, and that this protective effect of EP is related to its anti-inflammatory action.

JNK pathway is required for retinoic acid-induced neurite outgrowth of human neuroblastoma, SH-SY5Y.

Neurite outgrowth is a central event of neuronal differentiation that proceeds in multiple processes requiring various cellular factors. Here we demonstrated that c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) plays an essential role in RA-induced neurite outgrowth of SH-SY5Y cells. Treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with RA induced a strong activation of JNK1 within 10 min, and the immediate increase of JNK1 activity returned to the basal level in an hour. The second surge of JNK1 activity was observed around 1 day after RA treatment, which coincided with the period of extensive neurite outgrowth. Interestingly, phospho-JNK was concentrated in the nucleus of cells during the early induction, whereas it was distributed into neurite processes during the delayed second activation period. In SH-SY5Y carrying a dominant negative form of SEK1, an upstream kinase of JNK1, both early and late inductions of JNK1 activity were repressed along with RA-induced neurite outgrowth. These results suggest that JNK1 plays an essential role in RA-induced neuronal differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells.

Inhibition of delayed induction of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase attenuates kainic acid-induced neuronal loss in the hippocampus.

The activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) has been implicated in the pathological changes accompanying inflammatory and apoptotic processes of various cell types including neurons. In a kainic acid (KA)-induced mouse seizure model, p38 MAPK is induced in reactive astrocytes in the CA3 region of the hippocampus where severe neuronal loss occurs. Here we report the delayed and protracted activation of p38 MAPK in the CA3 region of the hippocampus of mice treated with KA. In this model, the inhibition of p38 MAPK isoforms by SB203580, a specific inhibitor, attenuated neuronal loss in the CA3 and CA1 regions of the hippocampus, which was accompanied by the suppression of the p38 MAPK activation as well as astrogliosis. Thus, the delayed and sustained induction of p38 MAPK plays a crucial role in the neuronal damage of KA-induced brain seizures.

Dynamic expression of p38beta MAPK in neurons and astrocytes after transient focal ischemia.

Here we report the dynamically regulated expression of p38beta MAPK isoform in specific subsets of cells in postischemic brain. The activity of p38beta MAPK in the postischemic brain revealed biphasic induction at 30 min and 4 days after 1 h MCAO. During the early surge period, p38beta MAPK was preferentially localized in the nucleus and dendrites of neurons in the future infarction area, while during the delayed surge p38beta MAPK was heavily induced in reactive astrocytes in penumbra. The temporally and spatially regulated pattern of p38beta MAPK expression in the postischemic brain suggests distinct roles of p38beta MAPK in neuronal death and in the astrocyte activation.

A PP1-binding motif present in BRCA1 plays a role in its DNA repair function.

Protein phosphatase 1alpha (PP1alpha) regulates phosphorylation of BRCA1, which contains a PP1-binding motif (898)KVTF(901). Mutation of this motif greatly reduces the interaction between BRCA1 and PP1alpha. Here we show that mutation of the PP1-binding motif abolishes the ability of BRCA1 to enhance survival of Brca1-deficient mouse mammary tumor cells after DNA damage. The Rad51 focus formation and comet assays revealed that the DNA repair function of BRCA1 was impaired when the PP1-binding motif was mutated. Analysis of subnuclear localization of GFP-tagged BRCA1 demonstrated that mutation of the PP1-binding motif affected BRCA1 redistribution in response to DNA damage. BRCA1 is required for the formation of Rad51 subnuclear foci after DNA damage. Mutation of the PP1-binding motif in BRCA1 also affected recruitment of Rad51 to sites of DNA damage. Consistent with these findings, knockdown of PP1alpha in BRCA1-proficient cells by small interfering RNA also significantly reduced Rad51 focus formation induced by DNA damage. Further analysis indicated that mutation of the PP1-binding motif compromised BRCA1 activities in homologous recombination. Altogether, our data implicate that interaction with PP1alpha is important for BRCA1 function in DNA repair.

The axon guidance defect of the telencephalic commissures of the JSAP1-deficient brain was partially rescued by the transgenic expression of JIP1.

The JNK interacting protein, JSAP1, has been identified as a scaffold protein for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways and as a linker protein for the cargo transport along the axons. To investigate the physiological function of JSAP1 in vivo, we generated mice lacking JSAP1. The JSAP1 null mutation produced various developmental deficits in the brain, including an axon guidance defect of the corpus callosum, in which phospho-FAK and phospho-JNK were distributed at reduced levels. The axon guidance defect of the corpus callosum in the jsap1-/- brain was correlated with the misplacement of glial sling cells, which reverted to their normal position after the transgenic expression of JNK interacting protein 1(JIP1). The transgenic JIP1 partially rescued the axon guidance defect of the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure of the jsap1-/- brain. The JSAP1 null mutation impaired the normal distribution of the Ca+2 regulating protein, calretinin, but not the synaptic vesicle marker, SNAP-25, along the axons of the thalamocortical tract. These results suggest that JSAP1 is required for the axon guidance of the telencephalic commissures and the distribution of cellular protein(s) along axons in vivo, and that the signaling network organized commonly by JIP1 and JSAP1 regulates the axon guidance in the developing brain.