Evolution of the Grain Dispersal System in Barley.

About 12,000 years ago in the Near East, humans began the transition from hunter-gathering to agriculture-based societies. Barley was a founder crop in this process, and the most important steps in its domestication were mutations in two adjacent, dominant, and complementary genes, through which grains were retained on the inflorescence at maturity, enabling effective harvesting. Independent recessive mutations in each of these genes caused cell wall thickening in a highly specific grain "disarticulation zone," converting the brittle floral axis (the rachis) of the wild-type into a tough, non-brittle form that promoted grain retention. By tracing the evolutionary history of allelic variation in both genes, we conclude that spatially and temporally independent selections of germplasm with a non-brittle rachis were made during the domestication of barley by farmers in the southern and northern regions of the Levant, actions that made a major contribution to the emergence of early agrarian societies.

Intrasperm vertical symbiont transmission.

Symbiotic bacteria are commonly associated with cells and tissues of diverse animals and other organisms, which affect hosts' biology in a variety of ways. Most of these symbionts are present in the cytoplasm of host cells and maternally transmitted through host generations. The paucity of paternal symbiont transmission is likely relevant to the extremely streamlined sperm structure: the head consisting of condensed nucleus and the tail made of microtubule bundles, without the symbiont-harboring cytoplasm that is discarded in the process of spermatogenesis. Here, we report a previously unknown mechanism of paternal symbiont transmission via an intrasperm passage. In the leafhopper Nephotettix cincticeps, a facultative Rickettsia symbiont was found not only in the cytoplasm but also in the nucleus of host cells. In male insects, strikingly, most sperm heads contained multiple intranuclear Rickettsia cells. The Rickettsia infection scarcely affected the host fitness including normal sperm functioning. Mating experiments revealed both maternal and paternal transmission of the Rickettsia symbiont through host generations. When cultured with mosquito and silkworm cell lines, the Rickettsia symbiont was preferentially localized within the insect cell nuclei, indicating that the Rickettsia symbiont itself must have a mechanism for targeting nucleus. The mechanisms underlying the sperm head infection without disturbing sperm functioning are, although currently unknown, of both basic and applied interest.

Novel strain of Spiroplasma found in flower bugs of the genus Orius (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae): transovarial transmission, coexistence with Wolbachia and varied population density.

Spiroplasma, a group of small, wall-less, helical, and motile bacteria belonging to the Mollicutes, contains species with diverse life histories. To date, all the Spiroplasma strains that are known to be transmitted vertically in arthropod lineages belong to either the Spiroplasma ixodetis group or the Spiroplasma poulsonii group. Here, we found that a unique strain of Spiroplasma vertically transmitted in predatory flower bugs of the genus Orius belongs to the Spiroplasma insolitum group, which is a group of bacteria phylogenetically closely related to S. insolitum derived from the tickseed sunflower, Bidens sp. (Asterales: Asteraceae). The infection frequencies in natural populations were16.0% in Orius sauteri (n = 75), 40.5% in Orius nagaii (n = 37), and 8.0% in Orius minutus (n = 87). Orius strigicollis was not infected with Spiroplasma (n = 147). In the early stage of oogenesis (i.e., within the germarium), a large number of bacteria with the typical morphology of Spiroplasma existed, keeping a distance from Wolbachia bacteria. The Spiroplasma population seemed to increase during host development but Wolbachia population did not.

Fibroin heavy chain gene replacement with a highly ordered synthetic repeat sequence in Bombyx mori.

The exceptional quality of silkworm silk is attributed to the amino acid sequence of its fibroin heavy chain (Fib-H) protein. The large central domain of Fib-H, which consists of glycine- and alanine-rich crystalline regions interspersed with amorphous motifs of approximately 30 amino acid residues, is considered crucial for fibrilization and determines the properties of the silk fiber. We established a technical platform to modify the Fib-H core region systematically using transcription activator-like effector nuclease-mediated homologous recombination through a somatic and germline gene knockin assay along with PCR-based screening. This efficient knockin system was used to generate a silkworm strain carrying a mutant Fib-H allele, in which the core region was replaced with a highly ordered synthetic repeat sequence of a length comparable with native Fib-H core. Heterozygous knockin mutants produced seemingly normal cocoons, whereas homozygotes did not and exhibited considerable degradation in their posterior silk glands (PSGs). Cross-sectional examination of the PSG lumen and tensile tests conducted on reeled silk threads indicated that the mutant Fib-H, which exhibited reduced stability in the PSG cells and lumen, affected the mechanical properties of the fiber. Thus, sequence manipulation of the Fib-H core domain was identified as a crucial step in successfully creating artificial silk using knockin technology.

Male killing and incomplete inheritance of a novel spiroplasma in the moth Ostrinia zaguliaevi.

Bacteria of the genus Spiroplasma are widely found in plants and arthropods. Some of the maternally transmitted Spiroplasma endosymbionts in arthropods are known to kill young male hosts (male killing). Here, we describe a new case of Spiroplasma-induced male killing in a moth, Ostrinia zaguliaevi. The all-female trait caused by Spiroplasma was maternally inherited for more than 11 generations but was spontaneously lost in several lineages. Antibiotic treatment eliminated the Spiroplasma infection and restored the 1:1 sex ratio. The survival rates and presence/absence of the W chromosome in the embryonic and larval stages of O. zaguliaevi showed that males were selectively killed, exclusively during late embryogenesis in all-female broods. Based on phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA, dnaA and rpoB gene sequences, the causative bacteria were identified as Spiroplasma belonging to the tick symbiont Spiroplasma ixodetis clade. Electron microscopy confirmed bacterial structures in the follicle cells and follicular sheath of adult females. Although many congeneric Ostrinia moths harbor another sex ratio-distorting bacterium (Wolbachia), only O. zaguliaevi harbors Spiroplasma.

A study of ladder-like silk foothold for the locomotion of bagworms.

While walking on horizontal substrates, caterpillars skilfully engage all their legs, including three pairs of thoracic legs and a maximum of five pairs of prolegs, to move in a flexible wave-like motion. Such locomotory behaviours, represented by 'crawling' and 'inching' motions, have widely inspired the development of locomotion systems in soft robotics. However, bagworms are unable to use their prolegs for walking because these are always accommodated in a portable bag; thus, they are unable to walk using such general locomotory behaviours. Indeed, how they walk with only three pairs of thoracic legs is unknown at present. In this study, we show that bagworms construct a ladder-like foothold using their silk to walk without using prolegs. This enables them to walk not only on horizontal floor surfaces but also on wall and ceiling surfaces, even those with slippery or smooth surfaces. They construct the foothold by spinning a continuous silk thread in a zigzag manner and controlling the discharge of adhesive to attach the folded parts of the silk to a substrate. Discovery of this elaborate silk utilisation technique offers fresh insights into the diversity of silk use in lepidopteran larvae and provides potential designs for robot locomotion systems.

GABA, ß-alanine and glycine in the digestive juice of privet-specialist insects: convergent adaptive traits against plant iridoids.

The privet tree, Ligustrum obtusifolium (Oleaceae), defends its leaves against insects with a strong lysine-decreasing activity that make proteins non-nutritive. This is caused by oleuropein, an iridoid glycoside. We previously found that some privet-specialist caterpillars adapt by secreting glycine in the digestive juice as a neutralizer that prevents the loss of lysine. Here, we extended the survey into 42 lepidopteran and hymenopteran species. The average concentration of glycine in digestive juice for 11 privet-feeding species (40.396 mM) was higher than that for 32 non-privet-feeding species (2.198 mM). The glycine concentrations exceeded 10 mM in 7 out of 11 privet-feeding species. In Macrophya timida (Hymenoptera), it reached 164.8 mM. Three out of the four remaining privet-feeding species had other amino acids instead. Larvae of a privet-specialist butterfly, Artopoetes pryeri (Lycaenidae), had a high concentration (60.812 mM) of GABA. In two other specialists, ß-alanine was found. GABA, ß-alanine, and glycine as well as alanine, amines, and ammonium ion inhibited the lysine decrease, indicating that amino residues are responsible for the inhibition. However, the three amino acids found in the specialists were far more effective (20 mM showed 80% inhibition) than the rest (>140 mM was required for 80% inhibition). Our results show a clear and rare case of the apparent convergent evolution of herbivores' molecular adaptations of feeding on a plant with a chemical defense in a manner that minimizes the cost of adaptation. The novel role of GABA in plant-herbivore interactions shown here is probably the first reported non-neuronal role of animal-derived GABA.

Prevalence of Cardinium bacteria in planthoppers and spider mites and taxonomic revision of "Candidatus Cardinium hertigii" based on detection of a new Cardinium group from biting midges.

Cardinium bacteria, members of the phylum Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroides (CFB), are intracellular bacteria in arthropods that are capable of inducing reproductive abnormalities in their hosts, which include parasitic wasps, mites, and spiders. A high frequency of Cardinium infection was detected in planthoppers (27 out of 57 species were infected). A high frequency of Cardinium infection was also found in spider mites (9 out of 22 species were infected). Frequencies of double infection by Cardinium and Wolbachia bacteria (Alphaproteobacteria capable of manipulating reproduction of their hosts) were disproportionately high in planthoppers but not in spider mites. A new group of bacteria, phylogenetically closely related to but distinct from previously described Cardinium bacteria (based on 16S rRNA and gyrB genes) was found in 4 out of 25 species of Culicoides biting midges. These bacteria possessed a microfilament-like structure that is a morphological feature previously found in Cardinium and Paenicardinium. The bacteria close to the genus Cardinium consist of at least three groups, A, B, and C. Group A is present in various species of arthropods and was previously referred to as "Candidatus Cardinium hertigii," group B is present in plant parasitic nematodes and was previously referred to as "Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii," and group C is present in Culicoides biting midges. On the basis of morphological and molecular data, we propose that the nomenclature of these three groups be integrated into a single species, "Candidatus Cardinium hertigii."

A GDSL-motif esterase/acyltransferase/lipase is responsible for leaf water retention in barley.

The hydrophobic cuticle covers the surface of the most aerial organs of land plants. The barley mutant eceriferum-zv (cer-zv), which is hypersensitive to drought, is unable to accumulate a sufficient quantity of cutin in its leaf cuticle. The mutated locus has been mapped to a 0.02 cM segment in the pericentromeric region of chromosome 4H. As a map-based cloning approach to isolate the gene was therefore considered unlikely to be feasible, a comparison was instead made between the transcriptomes of the mutant and the wild type. In conjunction with extant genomic information, on the basis of predicted functionality, only two genes were considered likely to encode a product associated with cutin formation. When eight independent cer-zv mutant alleles were resequenced with respect to the two candidate genes, it was confirmed that the gene underlying the mutation in each allele encodes a Gly-Asp-Ser-Leu (GDSL)-motif esterase/acyltransferase/lipase. The gene was transcribed in the epidermis, and its product was exclusively deposited in cell wall at the boundary of the cuticle in the leaf elongation zone, coinciding with the major site of cutin deposition. CER-ZV is speculated to function in the deposition of cutin polymer. Its homologs were found in green algae, moss, and euphyllophytes, indicating that it is highly conserved in plant kingdom.

A Nightmare for Males? A Maternally Transmitted Male-Killing Bacterium and Strong Female Bias in a Green Lacewing Population.

For maternally transmitted microbes, a female-biased host sex ratio is of reproductive advantage. Here we found a strong female bias in a field population of the green lacewing, Mallada desjardinsi (Insecta; Neuroptera). This bias was attributed to the predominance of individuals harboring a maternally inherited male-killing bacterium that was phylogenetically closely related to the plant-pathogenic Spiroplasma phoeniceum and Spiroplasma kunkelii. Among 35 laboratory-reared broods produced by wild-caught females, 21 broods (60%)-all infected with Spiroplasma-consisted of only females (940 individuals). Among 14 broods consisting of both males and females (516 and 635 individuals, respectively), 4 broods were doubly infected with Spiroplasma and Rickettsia, 6 broods were singly infected with Rickettsia, and 3 broods were uninfected (remaining one brood was unknown). Mortality during embryonic and larval development was prominent in all-female broods but not in normal sex ratio broods. Following antibiotic treatment on all-female broods, mortality was significantly reduced and the sex ratio was restored to 1:1. Strong expression and high prevalence of this male-killer is remarkable considering its low density (~10-5-10-4 cells per host mitochondrial gene copy based on quantitative PCR). In addition, a bacterium closely related to Rickettsia bellii was present in 25 of 34 broods (73.5%), irrespective of the sex ratio, with the infection density comparable to other cases of endosymbiosis (~10-2-10-1 cells per mitochondrial gene copy). Higher density of Rickettsia than Spiroplasma was also demonstrated by electron microscopy which visualized both Spiroplasma-like cells and Rickettsia-like cells inside and outside the ovarian cells.

Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of tick defensin against Gram-positive bacteria.

Defensins are a major group of antimicrobial peptides and are found widely in vertebrates, invertebrates and plants. Invertebrate defensins have been identified from insects, scorpions, mussels and ticks. In this study, chemically synthesized tick defensin was used to further investigate the activity spectrum and mode of action of natural tick defensin. Synthetic tick defensin showed antibacterial activity against many Gram-positive bacteria but not Gram-negative bacteria and low hemolytic activity, characteristic of invertebrate defensins. Furthermore, bactericidal activity against pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria including Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was observed. However, more than 30 min was necessary for tick defensin to completely kill bacteria. The interaction of tick defensin with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane and its ability to disrupt the membrane potential was analyzed. Tick defensin was able to disrupt the membrane potential over a period of 30-60 min consistent with its relatively slow killing. Transmission electron microscopy of Micrococcus luteus treated with tick defensin showed lysis of the cytoplasmic membrane and leakage of cellular cytoplasmic contents. These findings suggest that the primary mechanism of action of tick defensin is bacterial cytoplasmic membrane lysis. In addition, incomplete cell division with multiple cross-wall formation was occasionally seen in tick defensin-treated bacteria showing pleiotropic secondary effects of tick defensin.

Actin-mediated transovarial transmission of a yeastlike symbiont in the brown planthopper.

The brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera, Delphacidae) harbors an obligate endosymbiont called the yeastlike symbiont (YLS) in their abdominal fat body. YLS, a filamentous ascomycete belonging to the family Clavicipitaceae, does not spend any part of its life cycle outside the planthopper's body. The YLS is transferred to the next generation via transovarial transmission; it enters the epithelial plug at the posterior end of the host female's ovariole and is transferred to her offspring. In the present study, microscopic examination revealed that actin filaments play an important role in the transmission of YLS. An irregular cell protrusion on the surface of the epithelial plug facilitated the uptake of the YLS, which was then incorporated into the epithelial plug cell. Actin assembly apparently produces the protrusion and actin appears to participate in almost every stage of the process, from the entry of the YLS into the epithelial plug to its delivery to the oocyte. The epithelial plug employs a recognition system for YLS, which drastically changes the cell surface structure to enable the YLS to enter the ovariole.

Tolerance of anhydrobiotic eggs of the Tardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus to extreme environments.

Tardigrades are tiny (less than 1 mm in length) invertebrate animals that have the potential to survive travel to other planets because of their tolerance to extreme environmental conditions by means of a dry ametabolic state called anhydrobiosis. While the tolerance of adult tardigrades to extreme environments has been reported, there are few reports on the tolerance of their eggs. We examined the ability of hydrated and anhydrobiotic eggs of the tardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus to hatch after exposure to ionizing irradiation (helium ions), extremely low and high temperatures, and high vacuum. We previously reported that there was a similar pattern of tolerance against ionizing radiation between hydrated and anhydrobiotic adults. In contrast, anhydrobiotic eggs (50% lethal dose; 1690 Gy) were substantially more radioresistant than hydrated ones (50% lethal dose; 509 Gy). Anhydrobiotic eggs also have a broader temperature resistance compared with hydrated ones. Over 70% of the anhydrobiotic eggs treated at either -196°C or +50°C hatched successfully, but all the hydrated eggs failed to hatch. After exposure to high-vacuum conditions (5.3×10(-4) Pa to 6.2×10(-5) Pa), the hatchability of the anhydrobiotic eggs was comparable to that of untreated control eggs.

Establishment of a rearing system of the extremotolerant tardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus: a new model animal for astrobiology.

Studies on the ability of multicellular organisms to tolerate specific environmental extremes are relatively rare compared to those of unicellular microorganisms in extreme environments. Tardigrades are extremotolerant animals that can enter an ametabolic dry state called anhydrobiosis and have high tolerance to a variety of extreme environmental conditions, particularly while in anhydrobiosis. Although tardigrades have been expected to be a potential model animal for astrobiological studies due to their excellent anhydrobiotic and extremotolerant abilities, few studies of tolerance with cultured tardigrades have been reported, possibly due to the absence of a model species that can be easily maintained under rearing conditions. We report the successful rearing of the herbivorous tardigrade, Ramazzottius varieornatus, by supplying the green alga Chlorella vulgaris as food. The life span was 35 +/- 16.4 d, deposited eggs required 5.7 +/- 1.1 d to hatch, and animals began to deposit eggs 9 d after hatching. The reared individuals of this species had an anhydrobiotic capacity throughout their life cycle in egg, juvenile, and adult stages. Furthermore, the reared adults in an anhydrobiotic state were tolerant of temperatures of 90 degrees C and -196 degrees C, and exposure to 99.8% acetonitrile or irradiation with 4000 Gy (4)He ions. Based on their life history traits and tolerance to extreme stresses, R. varieornatus may be a suitable model for astrobiological studies of multicellular organisms.

Developmental stage-specific expression and tissue distribution of pierisin-1, a guanine-specific ADP-ribosylating toxin, in Pieris rapae.

The cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae) produces pierisin-1, an apoptosis-inducing protein against mammalian cells. In order to clarify the biological role of pierisin-1 in P. rapae, its expression during developmental stages was examined. Low levels of pierisin-1 mRNA and protein were detected in first-instar larvae. During growth until the fifth-instar larval stage, the amounts of the mRNA steadily increased to reach about 50-100 times the initial level. Then it rapidly decreased before pupation. The levels of mRNA in the pupae and the adults were as low as in the first-instar larvae. Levels of pierisin-1 protein also increased around 100 times from the first-instar to the fifth-instar larvae and then gradually decreased by over 90% during the pupal stage. Immunostaining of pierisin-1 demonstrated the protein to be mainly located in fat bodies of fifth-instar larvae and early-phase pupae. Although the staining intensity was low, fat bodies of early instars of the larvae and adults were also found to be positive. Moreover, examination of isolated fat body and other tissue samples of the insects were consistent with the above observations. Thus, the results indicate that mRNA of pierisin-1 was highly expressed in late stages of larvae, and that the protein accumulated in fat bodies where it persists during pupation.