3-(2-Trifluoromethyl-3-aryl-4H-chromen-4-yl)-1H-indoles: Mastering anti-inflammation and analgesia while mitigating gastrointestinal side effects.

A series of 3-(2-trifluoromethyl-3-aryl-4H-chromen-4-yl)-1H-indoles (5-1 to 5-29) were developed and characterized. Most of compounds were found to be potent for inhibiting the production of NO in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, of which 3-(3-(4-chlorophenyl)-6-methoxy-2-(trifluoromethyl)-4H-chromen-4-yl)-1H-indole (5-25) was the most optimal (IC50 = 4.82 ± 0.34 µΜ) and was capable of significantly suppressing the release of PGE2. The inhibitory effect of 5-25 on human recombinant COX-2 (IC50 = 51.7 ± 1.3 nM) was measured and molecular docking was performed, determining 5-25 as a COX-2 inhibitor. Additionally, the interaction between 5-25 and COX-2 was determined by the CETSA technique. Then, 5-25 inhibited the degradation of IκB, the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65, and the expression of COX-2 and iNOS. Moreover, it was verified that 5-25 exhibited efficacy in rodent models of inflammation and pain, encompassing the paw edema, cotton pellet-induced granuloma, acid-induced writhing, and adjuvant-induced arthritis models. Therefore, the mechanism of 5-25 may be to bind to COX-2 and exert anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in vitro and in vivo by suppressing the NF-κB pathway. Encouragingly, in comparison with indomethacin, 5-25 exhibited a lower ulcerative potential in rats, as manifested by generating smaller areas and fewer ulcers, less inflammatory infiltration, a lower expression of MMP-9, and less apoptosis. In conclusion, 5-25 is a candidate drug with high activity and low ulcerogenic potential, and it deserves further research for the treatment of inflammation, pain, and other symptoms in which COX-2 plays a role in their pathogenesis.

Synthesis, molecular docking, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and ulcerogenic evaluation of thiophene-pyrazole candidates as COX, 5-LOX, and TNF-α inhibitors.

The thiophene bearing pyrazole derivatives (7a-j) were synthesized and examined for their in vitro cyclooxygenase, 5-lipoxygenase, and tumour inducing factor-α inhibitory activities followed by the in vivo analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and ulcerogenic evaluations. The synthesized series (7a-j) were characterized using 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-IR, and mass spectral analysis. Initially, the compounds (7a-j) were evaluated for their in vitro cyclooxygenase, 5-lipoxygenase, and tumour inducing factor-α inhibitory activities and the compound (7f) with two phenyl substituents in the pyrazole ring and chloro substituent in the thiophene ring and the compound (7g) with two phenyl substituents in the pyrazole ring and bromo substituent in the thiophene ring were observed as potent compounds among the series. The compounds (7f and 7g) with effective in vitro potentials were further analyzed for analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and ulcerogenic evaluations. Also, to ascertain the binding affinities of compounds (7a-j), docking assessments were carried out and the ligand (7f) with the highest binding affinity was docked to know the interactions of the ligand with amino acids of target proteins.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Novel Phenoxy Acetic Acid Derivatives as Selective COX-2 Inhibitors Coupled with Comprehensive Bio-Pharmacological Inquiry, Histopathological Profiling, and Toxicological Scrutiny.

COX-2 plays a key role in converting arachidonic acid into prostaglandins. This makes it a significant target for treating inflammation. Selective COX-2 inhibitors have marked a new phase in inflammatory treatment, providing significant effectiveness while reducing negative side effects. Herein, we aimed at the design and synthesis of new anti-inflammatory agents 5a-f, 7a-b, 10a-f, and 13a-b with expected selective inhibition for COX-2. Compounds 5d-f, 7b, and 10c-f showed significant COX-2 inhibition with IC50 in the range of 0.06-0.09 µM, indicating powerful pharmacological potential. In light of this, eight compounds were selected for further testing in vivo to assess their selectivity toward COX-1/COX-2 enzymes with the ability to reduce paw thickness. Compounds 5f and 7b showed significant anti-inflammatory effects without causing stomach ulcers, as they showed significant in vivo inhibition for paw thickness at 63.35% and 46.51%, as well as paw weight at 68.26% and 64.84%. Additionally, the tested compounds lowered TNF-α by 61.04% and 64.88%, as well as PGE-2 by 60.58% and 57.07%, respectively. Furthermore, these potent compounds were thoroughly analyzed for their pain-relieving effects, histological changes, and toxicological properties. Assessing renal and stomach function, as well as measuring liver enzymes AST and ALT, together with kidney indicators creatinine and urea, offered valuable information on their safety profiles. Molecular modeling studies explain the complex ways in which the strong interacts with the COX-2 enzyme. This comprehensive strategy emphasizes the therapeutic potential and safety profiling of these new analogues for managing inflammation.

Analgesic and Psychotropic Effects of a New Bradykinin Antagonist.

A bradykinin B1 receptors antagonist PAV-0056, an 1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one derivative, intragastrically administrated to mice at doses of 0.1 and 1 mg/kg causes analgesia in the "formalin test" not inferior to that of diclofenac sodium (10 mg/kg) and tramadol (20 mg/kg). PAV-0056 at doses of 0.1 and 10 mg/kg has no anxiolytic and central muscle relaxant effects in mice and does not damage the gastric mucosa in rats. Based on the results of the conditioned place preference test, PAV-0056 also does not induce addiction in mice.

Identification of Novel Cyclooxygenase-1 Selective Inhibitors of Thiadiazole-Based Scaffold as Potent Anti-Inflammatory Agents with Safety Gastric and Cytotoxic Profile.

Major obstacles faced by the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) are their gastrointestinal toxicity induced by non-selective inhibition of both cyclooxygenases (COX) 1 and 2 and their cardiotoxicity associated with a certain class of COX-2 selective inhibitors. Recent studies have demonstrated that selective COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition generates compounds with no gastric damage. The aim of the current study is to develop novel anti-inflammatory agents with a better gastric profile. In our previous paper, we investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of 4-methylthiazole-based thiazolidinones. Thus, based on these observations, herein we report the evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity, drug action, ulcerogenicity and cytotoxicity of a series of 5-adamantylthiadiazole-based thiazolidinone derivatives. The in vivo anti-inflammatory activity revealed that the compounds possessed moderate to excellent anti-inflammatory activity. Four compounds 3, 4, 10 and 11 showed highest potency (62.0, 66.7, 55.8 and 60.0%, respectively), which was higher than the control drug indomethacin (47.0%). To determine their possible mode of action, the enzymatic assay was conducted against COX-1, COX-2 and LOX. The biological results demonstrated that these compounds are effective COX-1 inhibitors. Thus, the IC50 values of the three most active compounds 3, 4 and 14 as COX-1 inhibitors were 1.08, 1.12 and 9.62 µΜ, respectively, compared to ibuprofen (12.7 µΜ) and naproxen (40.10 µΜ) used as control drugs. Moreover, the ulcerogenic effect of the best compounds 3, 4 and 14 were evaluated and revealed that no gastric damage was observed. Furthermore, compounds were found to be nontoxic. A molecular modeling study provided molecular insight to rationalize the COX selectivity. In summary, we discovered a novel class of selective COX-1 inhibitors that could be effectively used as potential anti-inflammatory agents.

Anti-inflammatory, ulcerogenic and platelet activation evaluation of novel 1,4-diaryl-1,2,3-triazole neolignan-celecoxib hybrids.

This study reports the synthesis of novel neolignans-celecoxib hybrids and the evaluation of their biological activity. Analogs8-13(L13-L18) exhibited anti-inflammatory activity, inhibited glycoprotein expression (P-selectin) related to platelet activation, and were considered non- ulcerogenic in the animal model, even with the administration of 10 times higher than the dose used in reference therapy. In silico drug-likeness showed that the analogs are compliant with Lipinski's rule of five. A molecular docking study showed that the hybrids8-13(L13-L18) fitted similarly with celecoxib in the COX-2 active site. According to this data, it is possible to infer that extra hydrophobic interactions and the hydrogen interactions with the triazole core may improve the selectivity towards the COX-2 active site. Furthermore, the molecular docking study with P-selectin showed the binding affinity of the analogs in the active site, performing important interactions with amino acid residues such as Tyr 48. Whereas the P-selectin is a promising target to the design of new anti-inflammatory drugs with antithrombotic properties, a distinct butterfly-like structure of 1,4-diaryl-1,2,3-triazole neolignan-celecoxib hybrids synthesized in this work may be a safer alternative to the traditional COX-2 inhibitors.

Anti-inflammatory activity of pyridazinones: A review.

The pyridazinone core has emerged as a leading structure for fighting inflammation, with low ulcerogenic effects. Moreover, easy functionalization of various ring positions of the pyridazinone core structure makes it an attractive synthetic and therapeutic target for the design and synthesis of anti-inflammatory agents. The present review surveys the recent advances of pyridazinone derivatives as potential anti-inflammatory agents to provide insights into the rational design of more effective anti-inflammatory pyridazinones.

Natural compounds as safe therapeutic options for ulcerative colitis.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease of unknown etiology. Several conventional treatments for UC such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, tumor necrosis factor antagonist, integrin blockers, and interleukin antagonist, and salicylates are available but are associated with the various limitations and side-effects. None of the above treatments helps to achieve the ultimate goal of the therapy, i.e., maintenance of remission in the long-term. Natural remedies for the treatment of UC show comparatively less side effects as compared to conventional approaches, and affordable. The current review presents details on the role of herbal drugs in the treatment and cure of UC. Google, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus portals have been searched for potentially relevant literature to get the latest developments and updated information related to use of natural drugs in the treatment of UC. Natural products have been used over centuries to treat UC. Some of the essential herbal constituents exhibiting antiulcerogenic activity include gymnemic acid (Gymnema sylvestre), shagoal (Zingiber officinale), catechin (Camellia sinensis), curcumin (Curcuma longa), arctigenin (Arctium lappa), and boswellic acid (Boswellia serrata). Although many plant-derived products have been recommended for UC, further research to understand the exact molecular mechanism is still warranted to establish their usefulness clinically.

Molecular docking and synthesis of caffeic acid analogous and its anti-inflammatory, analgesic and ulcerogenic studies.

A series of caffeic acid (CA) derivatives 7a-j were synthesized via etherification and coupling action and their chemical structures were elucidated spectroscopically. Motivated by the various biological activities displayed by CA derivatives such as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer and antioxidant and also based on its extensively consumption in the human diet. In the present work, the newly synthesized compounds 7a-j were evaluated for anti-inflammatory and analgesic action and most of them exerted comparable activity to the reference compound celecoxib. Further, ulcer indexes for the most active compounds were calculated and most of them showed less ulcerogenic effect than the reference drug. Among the title series 7a-j, compounds 7f and 7g with electron withdrawing bromo and chloro group respectively, at the para position of the phenoxy ring was showed good activity compared to all other compounds. Interestingly, the COX-I/COX-II activity ratio of potent compounds 7f and7g showed an almost equal inhibitory effect on both isoenzymes. Further, molecular docking studies have been performed for the potent compounds which showed statistically significant result.

Synthesis, anti-inflammatory and analgesic evaluation of thiazole/oxazole substituted benzothiazole derivatives.

Non-Steroidal biologically active heterocyclic compounds 4-(2-(4-chlorophenyl) benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl)-N-((3-substituted-2-hydrobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)methylene) thiazol-2-amine (3a-3d), 4-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl)-N-((3-substituted - 2-hydrobenzo [d]thiazol-2-yl)methylene)oxazol-2-amine (3a'-3d'), (Z)-N'-(4-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl)thiaol-2-yl)-N-(4-substituted phenylimino)-3-substituted-2-hydrobenzo[d]thiazole-2-carboxamidine (4a-4 h) and (Z)-N'-(4-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl)oxazol-2-yl)-N-(4-substituted phenylimino) - 3-substituted-2-hydrobenzo[d]thiazole-2-carboxamidine (4a'-4h') were synthesized starting from 2-chloro-1-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl) ethanone (1). The structure configuration of newly synthesized compounds has been determined by elemental analysis and various spectroscopic (IR, 1HNMR and GCMS) techniques. These compounds were tested for their anti-inflammation, analgesic, ulcerogenic, acute toxicity and free radical scavenging action and compared with reference drugs in albino rats. Compound 4-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)benzo[d]thiazol-3(2H)-yl)-N-((3-substituted-2-hydrobenzo [d]thiazol-2-yl)methylene)thiazol-2-amine (3c) was the most active compound than reference drug at a dose of 50 mg/kg p.o.

Design, synthesis, biological evaluation, and computational studies of novel thiazolo-pyrazole hybrids as promising selective COX-2 inhibitors: Implementation of apoptotic genes expression for ulcerogenic liability assessment.

A novel series of thiazolo-pyrazole hybrids has been prepared and assessed for their in vitro COX-1/COX-2 inhibitory activity. Compound 6c exhibited the most selective COX-2 inhibition profile (SI of 264) not far of Celecoxib (294). In-vivo anti-inflammatory activity revealed that compound 6d exhibited the highest activity (97.30% inhibition of edema) exceeding reference standard Indomethacin (84.62% inhibition of edema). The ulcerogenic liability tested, using gross, microscopic, biochemical analysis and apoptotic genes expression, showed that compound 6b matched the optimal candidate activity (ulcer index = 120, selectivity index of ~ 162 and 77% in-vivo inhibition of edema). Meanwhile, compound 6 m (ulcer index = 0) showcased the highest safety profile. Molecular modeling analysis and drug likeness studies presented appreciated agreement with the biological evaluation.

Design, synthesis and mechanistic study of novel diarylpyrazole derivatives as anti-inflammatory agents with reduced cardiovascular side effects.

Novel diarylpyrazole (5a-d, 6a-e, 12, 13, 14, 15a-c and 11a-g) derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their dual COX-2/sEH inhibitory activities via recombinant enzyme assays to explore their anti-inflammatory activities and cardiovascular safety profiles. Comprehensively, the structures of the synthesized compounds were established via spectral and elemental analyses, followed by the assessment of both their in vitro COX inhibitory and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities. The most active compounds as COX inhibitors were further evaluated for their in vitro 5-LOX and sEH inhibitory activities, alongside with their in vivo analgesic and ulcerogenic effects. Compounds 6d and 11f showed excellent inhibitory activities against both COX-2 and sEH (COX-2 IC50 = 0.043 and 0.048 µM; sEH IC50 = 83.58 and 83.52 µM, respectively). Moreover, the compounds demonstrated promising results as anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents with considerable ED50 values and gastric safety profiles. Remarkably, the most active COX inhibitors 6d and 11f possessed improved cardiovascular safety profiles, if compared to celecoxib, as shown by the laboratory evaluation of both essential cardiac biochemical parameters (troponin-1, prostacyclin, tumor necrosis factor-α, lactate dehydrogenase, reduced glutathione and creatine kinase-M) and histopathological studies. On the other hand, docking simulations confirmed that the newly synthesized compounds displayed sufficient structural features required for binding to the target COX-2 and sEH enzymes. Also, in silico ADME studies prediction and drug-like properties of the compounds revealed favorable oral bioavailability results. Collectively, the present work could be featured as a promising future approach towards novel selective COX-2 inhibitors with declined cardiovascular risks.

In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and ulcerogenic activities of pyridone and chromenopyridone derivatives, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic studies.

Throughout this study, we present the victorious synthesis of a novel class of 2(1H)-pyridone molecules, bearing a 4-hydroxyphenyl moiety through a one-pot reaction of 2-cyano-N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetamide with cyanoacetamide, acetylacetone or ethyl acetoacetate, and their corresponding aldehydes. In addition, the chromene moiety was introduced into the pyridine skeleton through the cyclization of the cyanoacetamide 2 with salicylaldehyde, followed by treatment with malononitrile, ethyl cyanoacetate, and cyanoacetamide, in order to improve their biological behaviour. Due to their anti-inflammatory, ulcerogenic, and antipyretic characters, the target molecules have undergone in-vitro and in-vivo examination, that display promising results. Moreover, in order to predict the physicochemical and ADME traits of all synthesized compounds and standard reference drugs, paracetamol and phenylbutazone, the in-silico prediction methodology was provided.

Effect of Ester Derivative of Indomethacin on Immune Inflammation.

The anti-inflammatory effect of the ester derivative of indomethacin (IML) in doses of 6.25, 12.5, and 25 mg/kg was studied in rats with modeled rheumatoid arthritis (adjuvant arthritis) and compared to the effects of the reference drug indomethacin in a dose of 1 mg/kg. IML in doses of 12.5 and 25 mg/kg reduced joint inflammation and promoted recovery of the microstructure of the synovial membrane and articular cartilage better than indomethacin. IML produced no ulcerogenic effect, while indomethacin concentration in the stomach wall after administration of IML was 1.8-3.4 times lower than after administration of the reference drug (p<0.05).

Novel class of benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids: The privileged scaffolds of potent anti-inflammatory activity with dual inhibition of cyclooxygenase and 15-lipoxygenase enzymes.

The present study includes design and synthesis of new molecular hybrids of 2-methylthiobenzimidazole linked to various anti-inflammatory pharmacophores through 2-aminothiazole linker, to investigate the effect of such molecular variation on cyclooxygenase (COX) and 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX) enzymes inhibition as well as in vivo anti-inflammatory activity. The chemical structures of new hybrids were confirmed using different spectroscopic tools and elemental analyses. Benzimidazole-thiazole hybrids linked to acetyl moiety 13, phenyl thiosemicarbazone 14, 1,3-thiazolines 15a-c and 4-thiazolidinone 16 exhibited significant COX-2 inhibition (IC50 = 0.045-0.075 µM) with significant COX-2 selectivity indices (SI = 142-294). All hybrids revealed potent 15-LOX inhibitory activity (IC50 = 1.67-6.56 µM). Benzimidazole-thiazole hybrid 15b was the most potent dual COX-2 (IC50 = 0.045 µM, SI = 294) inhibitor approximate to celecoxib (COX-2; IC50 = 0.045 µM, SI = 327), with double inhibitory activity versus 15-LOX enzyme (IC50 = 1.67 µM) relative to quercetin (IC50 = 3.34 µM). Three hybrids (14, 15b &16) were selected for in vivo screening using carrageenan-induced paw edema method. Benzimidazole-thiazole hybrid linked to 4-thiazolidinone 16 showed the maximum edema inhibition at both 3 h and 4 h intervals as well (~119% and 102% relative to indomethacin, respectively). The gastric ulcerogenic effect of benzimidazole-thiazole hybrid 16 was estimated compared with indomethacin showing superior gastrointestinal safety profile. In bases of molecular modeling; all new active hybrids were subjected to docking simulation into active sites of COX-2 and 15-LOX enzymes to study the binding mode of these novel potent dual COX-2/15-LOX inhibitors.

Discovery of Novel Pyridazine-Based Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors with a Promising Gastric Safety Profile.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is implicated in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. Recently, pyridazine derivatives have emerged as a novel prototype to develop COX-2 inhibitors. Accordingly, some pyridazine-based COX-2 inhibitors are reported herein. The reaction of aldehyde 3 and different hydrazines yielded the corresponding hydrazones. The hydrazones were further derivatized to the title compounds, which were assessed for COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitory action, gastric ulcerogenic effects, and lipid peroxidation properties. Molecular docking studies and determination of the physicochemical parameters were also carried out. The allocated structures of the reported compounds were coherent with their spectroscopic data. The compounds 9a (IC50 = 15.50 nM, 114.77%), 9b (IC50 = 17.50 nM, 101.65%), 12 (IC50 = 17.10 nM, 104.03%), 16b (IC50 = 16.90 nM, 105.26%), and 17 (IC50 = 17.70 nM, 100.5%) displayed better COX-2 inhibition than celecoxib (IC50 = 17.79 nM, 100%). These outcomes were harmonious with the molecular docking studies of 9a, 9b, 12, 16b, and 17. These compounds also displayed comparable onset and the duration of action concerning celecoxib and indomethacin in the in vivo studies. No ulcerogenic effects were observed for 9a and 12, whereas 9b, 16b, and 17 showed an insignificant ulcerogenic effect compared to celecoxib. The compounds 9a, 9b, 12, 16b, and 17 displayed a better lipid peroxidation profile than celecoxib and indomethacin. The compounds 9a (%ABS = 84.09), 9b (%ABS = 84.09), 12 (%ABS = 66.87), 16b (%ABS = 75.02), and 17 (%ABS = 81.42) also displayed appreciable calculated absorption compared to celecoxib (%ABS = 82.09). The compounds 9a, 9b, 11, 16b, and 17 have been recognized and postulated as non-ulcerogenic COX-2 inhibitors with promising physicochemical parameters and gastric safety profile. These compounds may be useful candidates to combat diseases caused by higher levels of COX-2.

An Improved Synthesis of Key Intermediate to the Formation of Selected Indolin-2-Ones Derivatives Incorporating Ultrasound and Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) Blend of Techniques, for Some Biological Activities and Molecular Docking Studies.

We have developed a new idea to synthesize a key intermediate molecule by utilizing deep eutectic solvent (DES) and ultrasound in a multistep reaction to ensure process cost-effectiveness. To confirm the stability of reagents with DES, electronic energies were calculated at the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) level of theory. DES stabilized the reagents mainly due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Key intermediate (3) and final compounds (4a-n) were synthesized in a higher yield of 95% and 80%-88%, respectively. Further, final compounds (4a-n) were assessed for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, ulcerogenic, and lipid peroxidation. The compounds 4f, 4g, 4j, 4l, and 4m showed good anti-inflammatory activity, while 4f, 4i, and 4n exhibited very good analgesic activity as compared to the standard drug. The ulcerogenicity of selected compounds was far less than the indomethacin. The ligands had also shown a good docking score (4f = -6.859 kcal/mol and 4n = -7.077 kcal/mol) as compared to control indomethacin (-6.109 kcal/mol) against the target protein COX-2. These derivatives have the potential to block this enzyme and can be used as NSAID. The state-of-art DFT theory was used to validate the lipid peroxidation mechanism of the active compounds which was in good agreement with the variations of BDEs and IP of the tested compounds.

Synthesis of new pyrazoles and pyrozolo [3,4-b] pyridines as anti-inflammatory agents by inhibition of COX-2 enzyme.

New pyrazoles and pyrazolo[3,4-b] pyridines were synthesized and their structure was confirmed by elemental analyses as well as IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectral data. All the newly synthesized derivatives were evaluated in vitro for inhibitory activity against COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes and their IC50 values were calculated, most of the derivatives showed good inhibitory activity with derivatives IVb, IVh and IVJ showing inhibitory activity better than celecoxib. Moreover, the eight most potent derivatives IVa, IVb, IVc, IVd, IVe, IVh, IVJ, and IVL were selected for in vivo assay to measure their effect on paw edema in rates and their ulcerogenic effect. Compounds IVa, IVb and IVc were found to be the most active and selective as COX-2 inhibitors and most effective in protection from edema, they were also found to have lowest ulcerogenic effect among all derivatives.

Pyrazoles containing thiophene, thienopyrimidine and thienotriazolopyrimidine as COX-2 selective inhibitors: Design, synthesis, in vivo anti-inflammatory activity, docking and in silico chemo-informatic studies.

New thiophene and annulated thiophene pyrazole hybrids were synthesized and screened for their in vitro COX-1/COX-2 enzymatic inhibition and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities. All compounds were more COX-2 selective inhibitors than COX-1 with compound 13 exhibiting the highest COX-2 selectivity index. Compounds 3, 6a, 9 and 11 were the most promising in the acute anti-inflammatory assay while compounds 3, 5, 6a, 6c, 9, 10, 11 and 13 exerted promising anti-inflammatory activity in the sub-acute anti-inflammatory assay. Compounds 3, 6a, 6c, 9, 10 and 11 were evaluated for their ED50 values and were more potent than diclofenac sodium while compounds 6a, 6c and 9 were of greater potency than celecoxib with compound 6a being the most potent showing ED50 = 0.033 mmol/kg. These compounds were non-toxic and proved to be gastrointestinal safe compared to indomethacin, diclofenac sodium and celecoxib. Docking studies into COX-2 active site (PDB code 3LN1) revealed that compounds 3, 6a, 6c, 9, 10, 11 and 13 had binding modes and energies comparable to that of celecoxib. Compounds 3, 9, 10 and 11 complied with Lipinski's RO5 while compounds 6a and 6c showed one violation whereas compound 13 deviated by 2 violations. Compounds 6a, 6c and 13 showed 100% plasma protein binding (PPB) and showed no aqueous solubility while compounds 3, 10 and 11 demonstrated the best drug likeness model scores. Therefore, the thiophene analog 3 and the thienopyrimidine derivatives 10 and 11 are promising anti-inflammatory candidates that exert moderate selective COX-2 inhibition with acceptable physicochemical properties.

Synthesis, modeling and biological evaluation of some pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidinones and pyrazolo[4,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]pyrimidinones as anti-inflammatory agents.

New pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidinone and pyrazolo[4,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]pyrimidinone derivatives were synthesized. They have been evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activity using in vitro (COX-1/COX-2) inhibitory assay. Moreover, compounds with promising in vitro activity and COX-1/COX-2 selectivity indices were subjected for in vivo anti-inflammatory testing using formalin induced paw edema and cotton-pellet induced granuloma assays for acute and chronic models, respectively. Compounds (2c, 3i, 6a, 8 and 12) showed promising COX-2 inhibitory activity and high selectivity compared to celecoxib. Most of the compounds exhibited potential anti-inflammatory activity for both in vivo acute and chronic models. Almost all compounds displayed safe gastrointestinal profile and low ulcerogenic potential guided by histopathological examination. Furthermore, molecular docking experiments rationalized the observed in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of selected candidates. In silico predictions of the pharmacokinetic and drug-likeness properties recommended accepted profiles of the majority of compounds. In conclusion, this work provides an extension of the chemical space of pyrazolopyrimidinone and pyrazolotriazolopyrimidinone chemotypes for the anti-inflammatory activity.