Exploring the Toxicity, Lung Distribution, and Cellular Uptake of Rifampicin and Ascorbic Acid-Loaded Alginate Nanoparticles as Therapeutic Treatment of Lung Intracellular Infections.

Nanotechnology is a very promising technological tool to combat health problems associated with the loss of effectiveness of currently used antibiotics. Previously, we developed a formulation consisting of a chitosan and tween 80-decorated alginate nanocarrier that encapsulates rifampicin and the antioxidant ascorbic acid (RIF/ASC), intended for the treatment of respiratory intracellular infections. Here, we investigated the effects of RIF/ASC-loaded NPs on the respiratory mucus and the pulmonary surfactant. In addition, we evaluated their cytotoxicity for lung cells in vitro, and their biodistribution on rat lungs in vivo after their intratracheal administration. Findings herein demonstrated that RIF/ASC-loaded NPs display a favorable lung biocompatibility profile and a uniform distribution throughout lung lobules. RIF/ASC-loaded NPs were mainly uptaken by lung macrophages, their primary target. In summary, findings show that our novel designed RIF/ASC NPs could be a suitable system for antibiotic lung administration with promising perspectives for the treatment of pulmonary intracellular infections.

Differential Responses to Bioink-Induced Oxidative Stress in Endothelial Cells and Fibroblasts.

A hydrogel system based on oxidized alginate covalently crosslinked with gelatin (ADA-GEL) has been utilized for different biofabrication approaches to design constructs, in which cell growth, proliferation and migration have been observed. However, cell-bioink interactions are not completely understood and the potential effects of free aldehyde groups on the living cells have not been investigated. In this study, alginate, ADA and ADA-GEL were characterized via FTIR and NMR, and their effect on cell viability was investigated. In the tested cell lines, there was a concentration-dependent effect of oxidation degree on cell viability, with the strongest cytotoxicity observed after 72 h of culture. Subsequently, primary human cells, namely fibroblasts and endothelial cells (ECs) were grown in ADA and ADA-GEL hydrogels to investigate the molecular effects of oxidized material. In ADA, an extremely strong ROS generation resulting in a rapid depletion of cellular thiols was observed in ECs, leading to rapid necrotic cell death. In contrast, less pronounced cytotoxic effects of ADA were noted on human fibroblasts. Human fibroblasts had higher cellular thiol content than primary ECs and entered apoptosis under strong oxidative stress. The presence of gelatin in the hydrogel improved the primary cell survival, likely by reducing the oxidative stress via binding to the CHO groups. Consequently, ADA-GEL was better tolerated than ADA alone. Fibroblasts were able to survive the oxidative stress in ADA-GEL and re-entered the proliferative phase. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that shows in detail the relationship between oxidative stress-induced intracellular processes and alginate di-aldehyde-based bioinks.

Aggregation behavior of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their biotoxicity to Daphnia magna: Influence of humic acid and sodium alginate.

The widespread applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have raised increasing concerns due to their adverse environmental effects. The ubiquitous natural organic matter in natural aqueous environments can interact with ZnO NPs, thereby affecting their aggregation, sedimentation and biotoxicity. Here, we systematically investigated the effects of humic acid (HA) and sodium alginate (SA) on the aggregation behavior of ZnO NPs and their biotoxicity to Daphnia magna. High concentrations (9.0 mg/L) of HA and SA accelerated the aggregation of ZnO NPs with maximum aggregation rates (ΔD/Δt) of 22.1 and 19.2 nm/min, respectively. Both HA and SA led to 31.2% and 30.1% decrease of ZnO NPs concentration compared with the control experiment. The results calculated by Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theoretical formula were consistent with these of aggregation and sedimentation of ZnO NPs. Furthermore, excitation-emission-matrix fluorescence spectroscopy verified that the carboxylic groups of HA and SA have high complexation capacity with ZnO NPs. Daphnia magna was used to evaluate the biotoxicity of ZnO NPs, and the toxicity of ZnO NPs to Daphnia magna was alleviated as the HA concentration increased from 0 to 1.2 mg/L. Toxicity mitigation experiments confirmed that photocatalytic generation of reactive oxygen species was more toxic to Daphnia magna than dissolved Zn2+ in acute and chronic toxicity tests. Moreover, the attacks of active oxygen free radical damaged the antioxidant system of Daphnia magna. The information obtained will help us to improve the understanding of the impacts of ZnO NPs on freshwater ecosystems.

Surface functionalized magnetic nanoparticles shift cell behavior with on/off magnetic fields.

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are used as contrast agents and targeted drug delivery systems (TDDS) due to their favorable size, surface charge, and magnetic properties. Unfortunately, the toxicity associated with MNPs limits their biological applications. Surface functionalization of MNPs with selective polymers alters the surface chemistry to impart better biocompatibility. We report the preparation of surface functionalized MNPs using iron oxide NPs (MNPs), poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and sodium alginate via co-precipitation, emulsification, and electro-spraying, respectively. The NPs are in the nanosize range and negatively charged. Morphological and structural analyses affirm the surface functionalized nanostructure of the NPs. The surface functionalized MNPs are biocompatible, and demonstrate enhanced intracellular delivery under an applied magnetic field (H), which evinces the targeting ability of MNPs. After NP treatment, the physico-mechanical properties of fibroblasts are decided by the selective MNP uptake under "on" or "off" magnetic field conditions. We envision potential use of biocompatible surface functionalized MNP for intracellular-, targeted-DDS, imaging, and for investigating cellular mechanics.

Preparation and biocompatibility of demineralized bone matrix/sodium alginate putty.

Demineralized bone matrix (DBM) powder is widely used for bone regeneration due to its osteoinductivity and osteoconductivity. However, difficulties with handling, tendency to migrate from graft sites and lack of stability after surgery sometimes limit the clinical utility of this material. In this work, the possibility of using sodium alginate (ALG) carrier to deliver DBM powder was assessed. DBM-ALG putty with the DBM:ALG weight ratio of 5:5, 6:4, 7:3, 8:2 were prepared, respectively. The properties of the formed composite, including discrete degree, washout property, pH, equilibrium swelling as well as cytotoxicity in vivo, were adopted to ascertain the optimal ratio of DBM and ALG. The discrete diameter increased from 1.25 cm (5:5) to 2.08 cm (8:2) with the increase of DBM content. There was significant difference between the 8:2 group and the other groups in discrete diameter. The ratio of DBM had a significant effect on the swelling value. The pH of composites showed an increase trend with the DBM ratio's increase, when the ratio reached 7:3, the pH (7.22) was approximately equal to the body fluid. The proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells was inhibited in the 5:5, 6:4 and 7:3 groups, while a slightly increased in the 8:2 group. The DBM-ALG with the optimal ratio of 7:3 was confirmed based on the results of the above mentioned. The histocompatibility of DBM-ALG (7:3) was examined using a rat model in which the materials were implanted subcutaneously, compared with the polyethylene, ALG and DBM. The study in vivo showed DBM-ALG (7:3) had a lower inflammatory response than DBM, a higher vascularization than ALG. The osteoinduction of DBM-ALG (7:3) was evaluated by co-culturing with MC3T3-E1 in vitro, compared with the DMEM, ALG and DBM. The results indicated calcification area in the DBM-ALG group was similar to that in the DBM group, larger than ALG group and DMEM group. The DBM-ALG (7:3) putty is promising as a directly injectable graft for repair of bone defect.

Alginate nanofibrous mats with adjustable degradation rate for regenerative medicine.

The broad utilization of electrospun scaffolds of sodium alginate in tissue engineering is strongly limited by their high solubility in aqueous environments and by the difficulty to adjust their degradation dynamics. Here, an alternative strategy to enhance the stability and to control the degradability of alginate nanofibers is described by treating them with trifluoroacetic acid for specific time intervals. It is demonstrated that, by increasing the duration of the acid treatment procedure, a lower degradation rate of the resulting fibers in buffer solutions can be achieved. Furthermore, the produced mats are free from cytotoxic compounds and are highly biocompatible. The properties conferred to the alginate nanofibrous mats by the proposed method are extremely attractive in the production of innovative biomedical devices.

Effects of alginate on stability and ecotoxicity of nano-TiO2 in artificial seawater.

The large-scale use of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO2) in consumer and industrial applications raised environmental health and safety concerns. Potentially impacted ecosystems include estuarine and coastal organisms. Results from ecotoxicological studies with nano-TiO2 dispersed in salt exposure media are difficult to interpret due to fast flocculation and sedimentation phenomena affecting the dispersion stability. The goal of this study was to investigate the stabilisation effect of alginate on uncoated nano-Ti22 in artificial seawater dispersions used in ecotoxicity bioassays. The most effective stabilisation was obtained at alginate concentration of 0.45 g/L after sonicating dispersions for 20 min (100 W). The size distribution remained constant after re-suspension, indicating that no agglomeration occurred after deposition. Ecotoxicity tests on Artemia franciscana and Phaeodactylum tricornutum did not show any adverse effects related to the presence of alginate in the exposure media, and provided evidence on possible reduced bioavailability of nano-TiO2. The suitable concentration of alginate is recommended to occur on a case-by-case basis.

Comparison of the cytotoxicities and wound healing effects of hyaluronan, carbomer, and alginate on skin cells in vitro.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cytotoxicities and efficacy of hyaluronan (HA), carbomer, and sodium alginate on repairing thermal-injured cells and promoting cell migration. DESIGN: The 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenytetra-zoliumromide method was used to evaluate the cytotoxicities of HA, carbomer, and sodium alginate on L929 mouse fibroblasts and their repairing ability to thermal-injured HaCaT keratinocytes. A scratch test was used to observe the effects of the 3 materials on cell migration. RESULTS: Hyaluronan with different molecular weights were nontoxic, even at the concentration of 0.5%, whereas carbomer and sodium alginate showed mild or moderate cytotoxicities when their concentrations were higher than 0.1%. Cell viability and cell density of the thermal-injured keratinocytes treated with HA (600, 1070, and 1500 kDa) were increased significantly compared with that of model control (P < .05), whereas carbomer aggravated cell injury, and sodium alginate had no obvious repairing ability. Hyaluronan promoted cell migration significantly with higher cell density in the scratch area, compared with the control after culture for 48 hours; both carbomer and sodium alginate inhibited the cell migration, and carbomer altered the cell morphology completely. CONCLUSIONS: Hyaluronan can repair cell injury and promote cell migration and proliferation. It also has good biocompatibility. As a new type of hydrogel matrix, HA is superior to carbomer and sodium alginate if it is used in wound caring preparations.

Cytotoxic effects of denture adhesives on primary human oral keratinocytes, fibroblasts and permanent L929 cell lines.

BACKGROUND: To date, there have been very little data on the cytotoxic responses of different cell lines to denture adhesives. OBJECTIVE: To determine the cytotoxicity of three denture adhesives on primary human oral keratinocytes (HOKs), fibroblasts (HOFs) and permanent mouse fibroblasts cell lines (L929). METHODS: Three commercial denture adhesives (two creams and one powder) were prepared for indirect contact using the agar diffusion test, as well as extracts in MTT assay. The results of the MTT assay were statistically analysed by one-way anova and Tukey's test (p < 0.05). RESULTS: All of the tested denture adhesives showed mild to moderate cytotoxicity to primary HOKs (p < 0.001), whereas none of three was toxic to L929 cells (p > 0.05) in both assays. For primary HOFs cultures, slight cytotoxicity was observed for one of the products from the agar diffusion test and undiluted eluates of all tested adhesives with MTT assay (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Denture adhesives are toxic to the primary HOKs and HOFs cultures, whereas non-toxic to L929 cells. The results suggest that primary human oral mucosal cells may provide more valuable information in toxicity screening of denture adhesives.

Cell(MC3T3-E1)-printed poly(ϵ-caprolactone)/alginate hybrid scaffolds for tissue regeneration.

A new cell-printed scaffold consisting of poly(ϵ-caprolactone) (PCL) and cell-embedded alginate struts is designed. The PCL and alginate struts are stacked in an interdigitated pattern in successive layers to acquire a three-dimensional (3D) shape. The hybrid scaffold exhibits a two-phase structure consisting of cell (MC3T3-E1)-laden alginate struts able to support biological activity and PCL struts able to provide controllable mechanical support of the cell-laden alginate struts. The hybrid scaffolds exhibit an impressive increase in tensile modulus and maximum strength compared to pure alginate scaffolds. Laden cells are homogeneously distributed throughout the alginate struts and the entire scaffold, resulting in cell viability of approximately 84%.

Alginate enhances excretion and reduces absorption of strontium and cesium in rats.

Alginate (ALA), which is an intercellular polysaccharide associated with brown algae, is used as a food additive, a health food and a medicine. Here, we first examined the adsorption of strontium (Sr) and cesium (Cs) by ALA in vitro, and then evaluated the effects of ALA on absorption and excretion of Sr and Cs in rats, in order to evaluate its potential usefulness for minimizing radiation damage from materials released after a nuclear accident. Both Sr and Cs were concentration-dependently adsorbed by sodium alginate (ALA-Na) in vitro. In rats given diet containing either ALA-Na or calcium alginate (ALA-Ca) for two weeks, the plasma concentration of Sr gradually decreased compared with the controls (normal diet); however, in the case of Cs, the plasma concentration was decreased only in the ALA-Ca group, but not the ALA-Na group. Moreover, we examined the effect of preadministration of diet containing either ALA-Na or ALA-Ca on absorption of Sr and Cs administered orally as the chloride salts to rats. Absorption of both Sr and Cs was reduced in the ALA-Ca group, while absorption of only Sr was reduced in the ALA-Na group. Safety assessments indicated that ALA-Ca is safer than ALA-Na. These results indicate that ALA-Ca reduces absorption and promotes excretion of both Sr and Cs, while ALA-Na does so only for Sr.

Alginate coating modifies the biological effects of cerium oxide nanoparticles to the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha.

The adsorption of biomacromolecules is a fundamental process that can alter the behaviour and adverse effects of nanoparticles (NPs) in natural systems. While the interaction of NPs with natural molecules present in the environment has been described, their biological impacts are largely unknown. Therefore, this study aims to provide a first evidence of the influence of biomolecules sorption on the toxicity of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2NPs) towards the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha. To this aim, we compared naked CeO2NPs and coated with alginate and chitosan, two polysaccharides abundant in aquatic environments. Mussels were exposed to the three CeO2NPs (naked, chitosan- and alginate-coated) up to 14 days at 100 µg L-1, which is a concentration higher than the environmental one predicted for this type of NP. A suite of biomarkers related to oxidative stress and energy metabolism was applied, and metabolomics was also carried out to identify metabolic pathways potentially targeted by CeO2NPs. Results showed that the coating with chitosan reduced NP aggregation and increased the stability in water. Nonetheless, the Ce accumulation in mussels was similar in all treatments. As for biological effects, all three types of CeO2NPs reduced significantly the level of reactive oxygen species and the activity of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione-S-transferase. The effect was more pronounced in individuals exposed to CeO2NPs coated with alginate, which also significantly induced the activity of the electron transport system. Metabolomics analysis of amino acid metabolism showed modulation only in mussels treated with CeO2NPs coated with alginate. In this group, 25 metabolites belonging to nucleotides, lipids/sterols and organic osmolytes were also modulated, suggesting that the nanoparticles affect energetic metabolism and osmoregulation of mussels. This study highlights the key role of the interaction between nanoparticles and natural molecules as a driver of nanoparticle ecotoxicity.

Amphiphilic alginate-based fluorescent polymer nanoparticles: Fabrication and multifunctional applications.

Alginate has been widely applied in various biological systems due to its great biocompatibility. Endowing it fluorescent imaging would make people to further understand its complex structure, process and mechanism. In this work, amphiphilic alginate conjugated with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) moiety fluorescent polymer was successfully fabricated through the Ugi one-pot condensation. The synthetic polymer particles were fully evaluated by various characterizations including 1H NMR, FTIR, fluorescent spectroscopies, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). These amphiphilic alginate particles showed great multicolor fluorescence emission in both solid and solution states. The corresponding biological evaluation results confirmed that the fluorescent biopolymer showed excellent biocompatibility and desirable bioimaging property. Particularly, the leaf stomata were directly visualized using the amphiphilic AIE-active alginate biopolymer. Furthermore, the alginate-based polymer can also be employed as the drug carrier for hydrophobic curcumin. These results indicated that our synthetic AIE-active alginate particles might provide great potential for the further utilization of alginate in the understanding of various relative biological systems.

Production of wheat germ oil containing multilayer hydrogel dressing.

A composite wound dressing has been developed by combining different layers consisting of polymers and textiles. Wheat germ oil (WGO) loaded hydrogels have successfully formed on textile nonwovens by cross-linking sodium alginate (SA) with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE). Following freeze-drying, textile-hydrogel composites have been examined according to their physical properties, pH, fluid handling capacity, water vapour permeability, morphology, chemical structure, and cytotoxicity. Hydrogels containing WGO swelled less than pristine hydrogels. Samples with 1% WGO and no WGO showed swelling of 5.9 and 10.5 g/g after 8 h. WGO inclusion resulted in reduced, but more stable fluid handling properties, with more uniform pore distribution (100-200 µm). Moreover, the proliferation of NIH/3T3 cells significantly improved with 1% WGO contained hydrogels. Also, commercial self-adhesive dressings that secure the hydrogels to the wound area were investigated regarding transfer properties. The proposed product demonstrated 8.05 cm3/cm2/s and 541.37 g/m2/day air and water vapour permeability.

Hypoxia-Overcoming Breast-Conserving Treatment by Magnetothermodynamic Implant for a Localized Free-Radical Burst Combined with Hyperthermia.

For the purpose of improving the quality of life and minimizing the psychological morbidity of a mastectomy, breast-conserving treatment (BCT) has become the more preferable choice in breast cancer patients. Meanwhile, tumor hypoxia has been increasingly recognized as a major deleterious factor in cancer therapies. In the current study, a novel, effective, and noninvasive magnetothermodynamic strategy based on an oxygen-independent free-radical burst for hypoxia-overcoming BCT is proposed. Radical precursor (AIPH) and iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are coincorporated within the alginate (ALG) hydrogel, which is formed in situ within the tumor tissue by leveraging the cross-linking effect induced by the local physiological Ca2+ with ALG solution. Inductive heating is mediated by IONPs under AMF exposure, and consequently, regardless of the tumor hypoxia condition, a local free-radical burst is achieved by thermal decomposition of AIPH via AMF responsivity. The combination of magnetic hyperthermia and oxygen-irrelevant free-radical production effectively enhances the in vitro cytotoxic effect and also remarkably inhibits tumor proliferation. This study provides a valuable protocol for an hypoxia-overcoming strategy and also an alternative formulation candidate for noninvasive BCT.

Triple-Configurational Magnetic Robot for Targeted Drug Delivery and Sustained Release.

Active targeted therapy for bowel cancer using untethered microrobots has attracted extensive attention. However, traditional microrobots face challenges, such as issues of mobility, biocompatibility, drug loading, sustained-release capabilities, and targeting accuracy. Here, we propose an untethered triple-configurational magnetic robot (TCMR) that is composed of three geometrically nested parts: actuation and guarding, anchoring and seeding, and drug release part. A targeting magnetic driving system actuates the TCMR along the predetermined trajectory to the target position. The pH-sensitive actuation and guarding part formed by electrodeposition is degraded in the intestinal environment and separates from the two other parts. A majority of magnetic nanoparticles encapsulated in this part are retrieved. The anchoring and seeding part anchors the lesion area and seeds the drug release part in the gaps of intestinal villi by hydrolysis. Ultimately, the drug release part containing the therapeutic completes the sustained release to prolong the duration of the therapeutic agent. Cytotoxicity and therapeutic tests reveal that TCMRs are biocompatible and suitable for targeted therapy and have good therapeutic performance. The newly designed TCMR will provide new ideas for targeted therapy, thus expanding the application scope of robotics technology in the biomedical field.

Alginate-chitosan oligosaccharide-ZnO composite hydrogel for accelerating wound healing.

Moist, breathable and antibacterial microenvironment can promote cell proliferation and migration, which is beneficial to wound healing. Here, we fabricated a novel sodium alginate-chitosan oligosaccharide­zinc oxide (SA-COS-ZnO) composite hydrogel by spontaneous Schiff base reaction, using aldehydated sodium alginate (SA), chitosan oligosaccharide (COS), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles, which can provide a moist and antibacterial environment for wound healing. The porosity and swelling degree of SA-COS-ZnO hydrogel are 80% and 150%, respectively, and its water vapor permeability is 682 g/m2/24h. The composite hydrogel showed good biocompatibility to blood cells, 3T3 cells, and 293T cells, and significant antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Bacillus subtilis. Moreover, the hydrogel showed a promoting effect on wound healing in a rat scald model. The present study suggests that marine carbohydrates composite hydrogels are promising in wound care management.

Aligned Graphene Mesh-Supported Double Network Natural Hydrogel Conduit Loaded with Netrin-1 for Peripheral Nerve Regeneration.

The gold standard treatment for peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) is the autologous graft, while it is associated with the shortage of donors and results in major complications. In the present study, we engineer a graphene mesh-supported double-network (DN) hydrogel scaffold, loaded with netrin-1. Natural alginate and gelatin-methacryloyl entangled hydrogel that is synthesized via fast exchange of ions and ultraviolet irradiation provide proper mechanical strength and excellent biocompatibility and can also serve as a reservoir for netrin-1. Meanwhile, the graphene mesh can promote the proliferation of Schwann cells and guide their alignments. This approach allows scaffolds to have an acceptable Young's modulus of 725.8 ± 46.52 kPa, matching with peripheral nerves, as well as a satisfactory electrical conductivity of 6.8 ± 0.85 S/m. In addition, netrin-1 plays a dual role in directing axon pathfinding and neuronal migration that optimizes the tube formation ability at a concentration of 100 ng/mL. This netrin-1-loaded graphene mesh tube/DN hydrogel nerve scaffold can significantly promote the regeneration of peripheral nerves and the restoration of denervated muscle, which is even superior to autologous grafts. Our findings may provide an effective therapeutic strategy for PNI patients that can replace the scarce autologous graft.

Long-term antibacterial composite via alginate aerogel sustained release of antibiotics and Cu used for bone tissue bacteria infection.

Bone related-bacterial diseases including wound infections and osteomyelitis (OM) remain a serious problem accompanied with amputation in most severe cases. In this work, we report an exceptional effective antibacterial alginate aerogel, which consists of tigecycline (TGC) and octahedral Cu crystal as an organo-inorganic synergy platform for antibacterial and local infection therapy applications. The alginate aerogel could greatly prolong the release of copper ions and maintain effective antibacterial concentration over 18 days. The result of in-vitro experiments demonstrated that the alginate aerogel has an exceptional effective function on antibacterial activity. Cytotoxicity tests indicated that the alginate aerogel has low biological toxicity (average cell viability >75%). These remarkable results suggested that the alginate aerogel exhibits great potential for the treatment of OM, and has a prosperous future of application in bone tissue engineering.

Effect of chitosan-alginate nanoparticles and ultrasound on the efficiency of gene transfection of human cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Gene therapy has been used to treat a variety of health problems, but transfection inefficiency and the lack of safe vectors have limited clinical progress. Fabrication of a vector that is safe and has high transfection efficiency is crucial for the development of successful gene therapy. The present study aimed to synthesize chitosan-alginate nanoparticles that can be used as carriers of the pAcGFP1-C1 plasmid and to use these nanoparticles with an ultrasound protocol to achieve high efficiency gene transfection. METHODS: Chitosan was complexed with alginate and the pAcGFP1-C1 plasmid at different charge ratios to create chitosan-alginate-DNA nanoparticles (CADNs). The average particle size and loading efficiency were measured. Plasmid DNA retardation and integrity were analysed on 1% agarose gels. The effect of CADNs and ultrasound on the efficiency of transfection of cells and subcutaneous tumors was evaluated. RESULTS: In the CADNs, the average size of incorporated plasmid DNA was 600-650 nm and the loading efficiency was greater than 90%. On the basis of the results of the plasmid DNA protection test, CADNs could protect the transgene from DNase I degradation. The transgene product expression could be enhanced efficiently if cells or tumor tissues were first given CADNs and then treated with ultrasound. CONCLUSIONS: The use of CADNs combined with an ultrasound regimen is a promising method for safe and effective gene therapy.