Cytokinin-induced parthenocarpy of San Pedro type fig (Ficus carica L.) main crop: explained by phytohormone assay and transcriptomic network comparison.

KEY MESSAGE: CPPU-induced San Pedro type fig main crop parthenocarpy exhibited constantly increasing IAA content and more significantly enriched KEGG pathways in the receptacle than in female flowers. N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea (CPPU) was applied to San Pedro fig (Ficus carica L.) main crop to induce parthenocarpy; the optimal effect was obtained with 25 mg L-1 application to syconia when female flowers were at anthesis. To elucidate the key expression changes in parthenocarpy conversion, significant changes in phytohormone level and transcriptome of fig female flowers and receptacles were monitored. HPLC-MS revealed increased IAA content in female flowers and receptacle 2, 4 and 10 days after treatment (DAT), decreased zeatin level in the receptacle 2, 4 and 10 DAT, decreased GA3 content 2 and 4 DAT, and increased GA3 content 10 DAT. ABA level increased 2 and 4 DAT, and decreased 10 DAT. CPPU-treated syconia released more ethylene than the control except 2 DAT. RNA-Seq and bioinformatics analysis revealed notably more differentially expressed KEGG pathways in the receptacle than in female flowers. In the phytohormone gene network, GA-biosynthesis genes GA20ox and GA3ox were upregulated, along with GA signal-transduction genes GID1 and GID2, and IAA-signaling genes AUX/IAA and GH3. ABA-biosynthesis gene NCED and signaling genes PP2C and ABF were downregulated 10 DAT. One ACO gene showed consistent upregulation in both female flowers and receptacle after CPPU treatment, and more than a dozen of ERFs demonstrated opposing changes in expression. Our results revealed early-stage spatiotemporal phytohormone and transcriptomic responses in CPPU-induced San Pedro fig main crop parthenocarpy, which could be valuable for further understanding the nature of the parthenocarpy of different fig types.

Direct and indirect effects of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the decomposition of leaf litter in streams.

As the production of metallic nanoparticles has grown, it is important to assess their impacts on structural and functional components of ecosystems. We investigated the effects of zinc and titanium nanoparticles on leaf decomposition in freshwater habitats. We hypothesized that nanoparticles would inhibit the growth and activity of microbial communities leading to decreased decomposition rates. We also hypothesized that under natural light, the nanoparticles would produce reactive oxygen species that could potentially accelerate decomposition. In the lab, whole Ficus vasta leaves were placed in containers holding one liter of stream water and exposed to either 0, 1, 10 or 100 mg/L of ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticles for six weeks (referred to as Exp. 1). We measured leaf mass loss, microbial metabolism, and bacterial density at 2, 4, and 6 weeks. In a second experiment (referred to as Exp. 2), we measured the effects of light and 10 and 100 mg/L ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticles on leaf mass loss, bacterial density and the bacterial and fungal community diversity over a 2 week period. In Experiment 1, mass loss was significantly reduced at 10 and 100 mg/L after 6 weeks and bacterial density decreased at 100 mg/L. In Experiment 2, there was no effect of ZnO nanoparticles on leaf mass loss, but TiO2 nanoparticles significantly reduced mass loss in the dark but not in the light. One possible explanation is that release of reactive oxygen species by the TiO2 nanoparticles in the light may have increased the rate of leaf decomposition. Bacterial and fungal diversity was highest in the dark, but nanoparticles did not reduce overall diversity.

The ambiguous ripening nature of the fig (Ficus carica L.) fruit: a gene-expression study of potential ripening regulators and ethylene-related genes.

The traditional definition of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits has been put into question. A significant example of this paradox is the climacteric fig fruit. Surprisingly, ripening-related ethylene production increases following pre- or postharvest 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) application in an unexpected auto-inhibitory manner. In this study, ethylene production and the expression of potential ripening-regulator, ethylene-synthesis, and signal-transduction genes are characterized in figs ripening on the tree and following preharvest 1-MCP application. Fig ripening-related gene expression was similar to that in tomato and apple during ripening on the tree, but only in the fig inflorescence-drupelet section. Because the pattern in the receptacle is different for most of the genes, the fig drupelets developed inside the syconium are proposed to function as parthenocarpic true fruit, regulating ripening processes for the whole accessory fruit. Transcription of a potential ripening regulator, FcMADS8, increased during ripening on the tree and was inhibited following 1-MCP treatment. Expression patterns of the ethylene-synthesis genes FcACS2, FcACS4, and FcACO3 could be related to the auto-inhibition reaction of ethylene production in 1-MCP-treated fruit. Along with FcMADS8 suppression, gene expression analysis revealed upregulation of FcEBF1, and downregulation of FcEIL3 and several FcERFs by 1-MCP treatment. This corresponded with the high storability of the treated fruit. One FcERF was overexpressed in the 1-MCP-treated fruit, and did not share the increasing pattern of most FcERFs in the tree-ripened fig. This demonstrates the potential of this downstream ethylene-signal-transduction component as an ethylene-synthesis regulator, responsible for the non-climacteric auto-inhibition of ethylene production in fig.

Metal (Pb, Cd, and Cu)-induced reactive oxygen species accumulations in aerial root cells of the Chinese banyan (Ficus microcarpa).

The current study evaluated the toxicity of three heavy metals to aerial roots of the Chinese banyan (Ficus microcarpa), which is a tree species native to China. In a laboratory experiment, segments of aerial roots cut from trees were treated with 0, 25, 50, 100, and 200 µM of lead, cadmium, or copper (Cu). The contents of these heavy metals in cells increased and root cell viability decreased with increases in treatment concentration. High levels of reactive oxygen species accumulated in the aerial root sections after heavy metal treatment. Both biochemical assay and histochemical localization showed that O(2) (•-), which is a precursor of H(2)O(2) accumulated in root sections and that the amount accumulated was positively related to heavy metal concentration, especially for Cu-treated samples. Histochemical staining with diaminobenzidine (DAB) and a fluorometric scopoletin oxidation assay indicated that the amount of H(2)O(2) accumulated was positively related to heavy metal concentration in the treatments; the scopoletin fluorescence assay was more sensitive and efficient than DAB staining for detection and quantification of H(2)O(2). The results indicate that aerial roots are sensitive to heavy metal-induced oxidative damage and that aerial roots have the potential to be used as indicators of heavy metal pollution in urban areas.

Nitrogen recovery from source-separated human urine using clinoptilolite and preliminary results of its use as fertilizer.

The use of source separated human urine as fertilizer is one of the major suggestions of the new sanitation concept ECOSAN. Urine is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which act as plant nutrients, however its salinity is high for agricultural and landscape purposes. Moreover, characteristics change significantly throughout storage where salinity increases to higher values as the predominant form of nitrogen shifts from urea to ammonium. Transferring nitrogen in human urine onto the natural zeolite clinoptilolite and using the subsequently recovered ammonium from the exhausted clinoptilolite for agricultural/landscape purposes is suggested as an indirect route of using urine in this work. Results reporting the outcome of the proposed process together with characterization of fresh and stored urine, and preliminary work on the application of the product on the landscape plant Ficus elastica are presented. Up to 97% of the ammonium in stored urine could be transferred onto clinoptilolite through ion exchange and about 88% could be recovered subsequently from exhausted clinoptilolite, giving an overall recovery of 86%. Another important merit of the suggested process was the successful elimination of salinity. Preliminary experiments with Ficus elastica had shown that the product, i.e. clinoptilolite exhausted with ammonium, was compatible with the synthetic fertilizer tested.

Biochemical responses in tree foliage exposed to coal-fired power plant emission in seasonally dry tropical environment.

A biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate the responses of plants exposed to power plant emission in a dry tropical environment. For this purpose, five sampling sites were selected in the prevailing wind direction (NE) at different distance to thermal power plant (TPP) within 8.0 km range and a reference site was selected in eastern direction at a distance of 22.0 km. The two most common tree species, Ficus benghalensis L. (Evergreen tree) and Dalbergia sisso Roxb. (deciduous tree) were selected as test plants. Ambient sulphur dioxide (SO(2)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), suspended particulate matter (SPM), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM), dust-fall rate (DFR) and plant responses such as leaf pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids), ascorbic acid, sugar and sulphate-sulphur (SO4(2-)-S) contents were measured. Ambient SO(2), NO(2), SPM, RSPM and DFR showed significant spatial and temporal variation at different sites. Considerable reduction in pigment (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids) and sugar contents were observed at sites receiving higher pollution load. Ascorbic acid exhibited significant positive correlation with pollution load. Accumulation of SO4(2-)-S in leaf tissue showed significant positive correlation with ambient SO(2) concentration at all the sites. At the same time, SO4(2-)-S showed significant negative correlation with pigment and sugar content. D. sisso Roxb. tree was found to be more sensitive as compared to F. benghalensis L. tree.

Biochar alleviates phytotoxicity in Ficus elastica grown in Zn-contaminated soil.

Zinc (Zn) immobilization by two distinct biochars in soil, together with concomitant alleviation of phytotoxic responses in Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem., were examined. Rooted cuttings of F. elastica were grown in 880mgkg-1 Zn-spiked sandy soil amended with grain husk (GH) or cattle manure (CM) biochar at 0, 10, 30 and 50gkg-1 soil for a period of 6months. Addition of both GH and CM biochars had significant positive impacts on physiological parameters such as plant growth, leaf relative water content, photosynthetic pigments and leaf gas exchange characteristics. The responses to addition of CM biochar were significantly better than to GH biochar. Lipid peroxidation declined in leaves of plants grown in Zn-contaminated, biochar-amended soil. This was confirmed by luminescence and Fourier transform infrared analysis of the leaf material. Biochar significantly reduced the availability of soil Zn, as evidenced by lower concentrations of Zn in leaves and leachates of biochar treated plants relative to control plants. These findings show that biochar can effectively immobilize soil Zn, and as a result, alleviate Zn phytotoxicity by reducing its uptake and accumulation in the plant. Adding biochar to soils contaminated with metals thus holds promise as a means of restoring blighted lands.

Application of Ozone to Control Dried Fig Pests-Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) and Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)-and Its Organoleptic Properties.

Ozone is a powerful oxidant which can be used for killing insects and microorganisms. In this study, ozone was applied in the gaseous form to control two species of pests in stored dried figs. The samples of figs (50 g each) were infested with adults of Oryzaephilus surinamensis L. and larvae of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller and were subjected to different combinations of ozone concentrations (2, 3, and 5 ppm) and exposure times (15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min). Changes in organoleptic properties (color, sweetness, firmness, aroma, and overall acceptability) during ozonation were studied. The results showed that the mortality rate increased with an increase in ozone concentration and exposure time. The total mortality of both pests was achieved at an ozone concentration of 5 ppm and exposure time of 90 min. Sensory evaluation showed that ozone only had a negligible effect on aroma. Therefore, the usage of ozone is recommended during the postharvest process instead of other chemical fumigants, such as methyl bromide and phosphine.

Regulatory mechanisms of ethylene biosynthesis in response to various stimuli during maturation and ripening in fig fruit (Ficus carica L.).

In order to obtain a greater uniformity of maturation, the growth of the fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) can be stimulated by the application of either olive oil, ethrel/ethephon or auxin. The three treatments induce ethylene production in figs. In this study, we investigated the regulatory mechanisms responsible for oil, auxin and ethylene induced ethylene production in figs. The ethylene production in response to olive oil, auxin, and propylene treatments and during ripening were all induced by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and inhibited by propylene indicating a negative feedback regulation mechanism. Three 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase genes (Fc-ACS1, Fc-ACS2 and Fc-ACS3) and one ACC oxidase gene (Fc-ACO1) were isolated and their expression patterns in response to either oil, propylene or auxin treatment in figs determined. The expression patterns of Fc-ACS1 and Fc-ACO1 were clearly inhibited by 1-MCP and induced by propylene in oil treated and ripe fruits indicating positive regulation by ethylene, whereas Fc-ACS2 gene expression was induced by 1-MCP and inhibited by propylene indicating negative regulation by ethylene. The Fc-ACS3 mRNA showed high level accumulation in the auxin treated fruit. The inhibition of Fc-ACS3 gene by 1-MCP in oil treated and in ripe fruits suggests that auxin and ethylene modulate the expression of this gene by multi-responsive signal transduction pathway mechanisms. We further report that the olive oil-induced ethylene in figs involves the ACC-dependent pathway and that multiple ethylene regulatory pathways are involved during maturation and ripening in figs and each specific pathway depends on the inducer/stimulus.

Postharvest decay reduction of fig fruit (Ficus carica) by hot water sodium carbonate solutions dip.

Treatments as hot water dips or high temperature conditioning have been proven to be effective to control postharvest decay on various horticultural crops. These treatments reduce chilling injury and rot losses without causing detrimental effects on fruit firmness, flavour, taste or peel appearance. These technologies, aimed to control postharvest pathogens, can be easily matched with the use of "Generally Recognized as Safe" (G.R.A.S.) compounds and employed alternatively to pesticides, known to be harmful to health and environment. In this respect we studied the combined effect of sodium carbonate (SC) and hot water on the storability of black fig fruit cultivar 'Niedda Longa' of Sardinian germplasm. Second crop fig fruit, harvested in the middle of September, was dipped for one minute in water solutions containing 0, 0.05, 0.5, and 1% (w/v) of SC at 25 or 60 degrees C and then stored at 5 degrees C and 90% relative humidity (RH) for two weeks. After one and two weeks of storage decay, weight loss were monitored and visual assessment was scored. Treatments with hot solutions were more effective in controlling decay compared to cold ones and the best results were achieved with 0.5% of SC at 60 degrees C. This combination reduced the decay rate from 26% (control) to 0% after 1 week and from 50% to 14% after two weeks of storage, respectively. Lower or higher SC concentrations applied at 60 degrees C were less effective and, after two weeks of storage, decay percentages were 38 and 43.6%, respectively. Water dip at 60 degrees C did not affect the weight loss as compared to dips at 25 degrees C either after one or two weeks of storage. At the same time, a significant reduction was found only with 1% of SC at 25 degrees C. The fruit treated with 0.5% of SC at 60 degrees C also had the best visual assessment up to two weeks of storage.

ALA Pretreatment Improves Waterlogging Tolerance of Fig Plants.

5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a natural and environmentally friendly plant growth regulator, can improve plant tolerance to various environmental stresses. However, whether ALA can improve plant waterlogging tolerance is unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of ALA pretreatment on the waterlogging-induced damage of fig (Ficus carica Linn.) plants, which often suffer from waterlogging stress. ALA pretreatment significantly alleviated stress-induced morphological damage, increased leaf relative water content (RWC), and reduced leaf superoxide anion ([Formula: see text]) production rate and malonaldehyde (MDA) content in fig leaves, indicating ALA mitigates waterlogging stress of fig plants. We further demonstrated that ALA pretreatment largely promoted leaf chlorophyll content, photosynthetic electron transfer ability, and photosynthetic performance index, indicating ALA significantly improves plant photosynthetic efficiency under waterlogging stress. Moreover, ALA pretreatment significantly increased activities of leaf superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), root vigor, and activities of root alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), indicating ALA also significantly improves antioxidant ability and root function of fig plants under waterlogging stress. Taken together, ALA pretreatment improves waterlogging tolerance of fig plants significantly, and the promoted root respiration, leaf photosynthesis, and antioxidant ability may contribute greatly to this improvement. Our data firstly shows that ALA can improve plant waterlogging tolerance.

Metabolic responses of tropical trees to ozone pollution.

Plants fumigated with 40ppbv, 80ppbv and 120ppbv concentrations of O3 exhibited significant reduction in total chlorophyll content, RuBP carboxylase activity and net photosynthesis. The reduction in total chlorophyll activity ranged from 12 to 36% in Bauhinia variegata, 11 to 35% in Ficus infectoria and 3 to 26% in Pongamia pinnata on fumigation with O3, while the RuBP carboxylase activity was reduced by 10 to 32% in Bauhinia variegata, 10 to 23% in Ficus infectoria and 9 to 15% in Pongamia pinnata. The net photosynthesis was also reduced by 6 to 26% in B. variegata, 16 to 39% in F. infectoria and 7 to 31% in P. pinnata on fumigation with 03. The relative higher sensitivity of tropical trees to O3 suggests that the ambient air quality standards in tropical tree areas need to be stringent to prevent vegetation from air pollution.

The research of air pollution based on spectral features in leaf surface of Ficus microcarpa in Guangzhou, China.

Nowadays development of industry and traffic are the main contributor to city air pollution in the city of GuangZhou, China. Conventional methods for investigating atmosphere potentially harmful element pollution based on sampling and chemical analysis are time and labor consuming and relatively expensive. Reflectance spectroscopy within the visible-near-infrared region of vegetation in city has been widely used to predict atmosphere constituents due to its rapidity, convenience and accuracy. The objective of this study was to examine the possibility of using leaves reflectance spectra of vegetation as a rapid method to simultaneously assess pollutant (S, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, XCl, XF) in the atmosphere of the Guangzhou area. This article has studied the spectral features of polluted leaf surface of Ficus microcarpa in 1985 and 1998. According to the analysis, comprehensive assessment for the change of atmospheric condition and degrees of pollution were given. This conclusion was confirmed by the monitored data got from chemical analysis. Future study with real remote sensing data and field measurements were strongly recommended.