Immunostimulatory Phosphatidylmonogalactosyldiacylglycerols (PGDG) from the Marine Diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii: Inspiration for a Novel Synthetic Toll-Like Receptor 4 Agonist.

An unprecedented phosphatidylmonogalactosyldiacylglycerol pool (PGDG, 1) rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids was isolated from the marine diatoms Thalassiosira weissflogii. Here we report for the first time the NMR characterization of this rare lipid from marine organisms along with a synthetic strategy for the preparation of a PGDG analog (2). PGDG 1 exhibited immunostimulatory activity in human dendritic cells (DCs) and the synthetic PGDG 2 was prepared to explore its mechanism of action. A Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) agonistic activity was evidenced in human and murine DCs underlying the antigen-specific T-cell activation of this class of molecules.

Synthesis and characterization of picket porphyrin receptors that bind phosphatidylglycerol, an anionic phospholipid found in bacterial membranes.

The lipid binding ability of four urea-picket porphyrins designed to bind to both the phosphate anion portion as well as the glycerol hydroxyl groups of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) has been investigated. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and (1)H NMR were used to determine the receptor's stoichiometry of binding, association constants, and both the enthalpy and entropy of binding with the PG anion. Spectral evidence shows that the phosphate anion portion of PG is hydrogen bonded to the urea groups of the receptors. This binding interaction orients the PG anion in the receptor pocket such that its glycerol hydroxyl groups can align with a third urea picket, and results are furnished that suggest this multifunctional interaction does occur. The structure of the entire picket was found to influence the enthalpy and entropy of lipid binding. The synthesis of tetrabutlyammonium phosphatidylglycerol (TBAPG), and a detailed spectral characterization of its headgroup, is also presented.

Stereospecific synthesis of phosphatidylglycerol using a cyanoethyl phosphoramidite precursor.

Phosphatidylglycerols (PG) are a family of naturally occurring phospholipids that are responsible for critical operations within cells. PG are characterized by an (R) configuration in the diacyl glycerol backbone and an (S) configuration in the phosphoglycerol head group. Herein, we report a synthetic route to provide control over the PG stereocenters as well as control of the acyl chain identity.

The pH-dependence of lipid-mediated antimicrobial peptide resistance in a model staphylococcal plasma membrane: A two-for-one mechanism of epithelial defence circumvention.

The mechanisms of membrane defence by lysylphosphatidylglycerol (LPG), were investigated using synthetic biomimetic mono- and bilayer models of methicillin resistant S. aureus ST239 TW, based on its lipid composition in both pH 7.4 (28% LPG) and pH 5.5 (51% LPG) cultures. These models incorporated a stable synthetic analogue of LPG (3adLPG) to facilitate long-duration biophysical studies, which were previously limited by the lability native LPG. Both increased 3adLPG content and full headgroup ionization at pH 5.5, increased bilayer order and dampened overall charge, via the formation of neutral ion pairs with anionic lipids. Ion pair formation in air/liquid interface lipid monolayers elicited a significant condensing effect, which correlated with the inhibition of subphase-injected magainin 2 F5W partitioning. In fluid phase lipid vesicles, increasing the proportion of 3adLPG from 28 to 51 mol% completely inhibited the adoption of the membrane-active α­helical conformation of the peptide, without the need for full headgroup ionization. Neutron reflectivity measurements performed on biomimetic PG/3adLPG fluid floating bilayers, showed a significant ordering effect of mild acidity on a bilayer containing 30 mol% 3adLPG, whilst peptide binding/partitioning was only fully inhibited in a bilayer with 55 mol% 3adLPG at pH 5.5. These findings are discussed with respect to the roles of LPG in resistance to human epithelial defences in S. aureus and the continued evolution of this opportunistic pathogen's virulence.

Competitive inhibition of lipolytic enzymes. II. Preparation of 'monoacylamino' phospholipids.

This paper describes the synthesis of a number of phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylglycols, in which one fatty acyl ester group is replaced by an acylamino function. The phospholipids, both of the alpha- and beta-type, are prepared in racemic and enantiomeric pure forms.

Thermotropic phase behavior of mixed-chain phosphatidylglycerols: implications for acyl chain packing in fully hydrated bilayers.

In this communication we report the first systematic investigation of the thermodynamic properties of fully hydrated mixed-chain phosphatidylglycerols (PG) using high-resolution differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The crystal structure of dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol shows an acyl chain conformation that is nearly opposite to that of phosphatidylcholine (PC). In PC, the sn-1 chain is straight while the sn-2 chain contains a bend; for PG, the sn-1 contains a bend while the sn-2 chain is in the all-trans conformation (R.H. Pearson, I. Pascher, The molecular structure of lecithin dihydrate, Nature, 281 (1978) 499-501; I. Pascher, S. Sundell, K. Harlos, H. Eibl, Conformational and packing properties of membrane lipids: the crystal structure of sodium dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 896 (1987) 77-88). If the structure of PG found in the single crystal can be extrapolated to that in the fully hydrated gel-state bilayer, the observed difference in acyl chain conformations implies that modulation of the acyl chain asymmetry will have an opposite effect on the thermotropic phase behavior of PG and PC. For example, it is expected, based on the crystal structures, that C(15):C(13)PG should have a higher main phase transition temperature (Tm) than C(14):C(14)PG, and C(13):C(15)PG should have a lower Tm than C(14):C(14)PG. However, our DSC studies show clearly that the expectation is not borne out by experimental data. Rather, the Tm values of C(15):C(13)PG, C(14):C(14)PG, and C(13):C(15)PG are 18.2 degrees C, 23.1 degrees C, and 24.4 degrees C, respectively. Several other PGs, each with a unique acyl chain composition, have also been studied in this laboratory using high-resolution DSC. It is shown that the acyl chain conformation of fully hydrated PG in general is nearly opposite to that seen in the PG crystal structure.

Antiviral activity of phosphatidyl-dideoxycytidine in hepatitis B-infected cells and enhanced hepatic uptake in mice.

Dideoxycytidine (ddC) inhibits the replication of hepatitis B virus (HBV) but its clinical use is limited by peripheral neuropathy. We synthesized dioleoylphosphatidyl-ddC (DOP-ddC), a phospholipid prodrug of ddC which forms lipid bilayers and is readily incorporated into liposomes. The 90% effective dose (ED90) of DOP-ddC was 18 microM vs. 7 microM for ddC. However, in HBV-infected human hepatoma cells (2.2.15 cells), DOP-ddC was less toxic in vitro. When liposomal DOP-[5,6-3H]ddC was administered intraperitoneally to mice, drug levels in liver were 40 times greater than [5,6-3H]ddC when expressed as area under curve. Liposomal DOP-ddC also provided higher levels of drug in lymph nodes and spleen, important accessory sites of HBV replication. Plasma levels of drug remained above the ED90 six times longer with DOP-ddC than with ddC. DOP-ddC levels in sciatic nerve, the major site of toxicity, were not significantly different from levels observed with free ddC. The phospholipid prodrug approach is a general one which may readily be applied to other antiviral nucleosides for HBV.

Isosteres of natural phosphates. 5. The preparation of phosphotidycholine, phosphotidylethanolamine and phosphotidylglycerol.

Isosteric phosphonate analogues of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylglycerol have been prepared in which the normal oxygen atom of the phosphate ester linkage in the glycerol backbone of the molecule has been replaced by a methylene group. These have been prepared by the coupling of the previously reported phosphotidic acid (isosteric analogue of phosphatidic acid) with the appropriate protected hydroxyl compound mediated by trichloroacetonitrile. In all cases, racemic materials have been isolated: for the analogue of phosphatidylglycerol, a mixture of two enantiomeric pairs is isolated.

Synthesis of monophytanyl ether analogues of lysophosphatidic and lysophosphatidyl glycerol.

The chemical synthesis of 3-O-phytanyl-sn-glycero-1-phosphoric acid (monophytanyl ether analogue of lysophosphatidic acid) was effected by condensation of 1-iodo-2-O-benzyl-3-O-phytanyl-sn-glycerol with silver di-p-nitrobenzyl phosphate in anhydrous toluene followed by catalytic hydrogenolysis of the resulting phosphotriester to remove the benzyl and p-nitrobenzyl groups. Synthesis of 3-O-phytanyl-sn-glycero-1-phosphoryl-1'-sn-glycerol (monophytanyl ether analogue of lysophosphatidyl glycerol) was carried out by conversion of the above phosphotriester to the monosilver salt of the suitably blocked lysophosphatidic acid which was condensed with 1-iodo-2-O-t-butyl-3-O-benzyl-sn-glycerol. Removal of the protecting aromatic and t-butyl groups from the resulting blocked triester intermediate gave the desired phytanyl ether analogue of lysophosphatidyl glycerol. Both lyso analogues were isolated as analytically and chromatographically pure potassium salts. Their physical properties and behavior towards acid hydrolysis are described.

Stereospecific labeling of the glycerol moiety: synthesis of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-[3-3H]glycero-3-phospho(1-rac-glycerol).

1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-[3-3H]glycero-3-phospho(1-rac-glycerol) was synthesized from 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycerol using a new radiosynthetic procedure. 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycerol was oxidized to the corresponding aldehyde using pyridinium dichromate and pyridine. The aldehyde was reduced to the radiolabeled alcohol using tritiated sodium borohydride and crown ether. This material was then converted to the phosphocholine derivative using 2-chloro-2-oxo-1,3,2-dioxaphospholane, followed by displacement with trimethylamine. In the last step, the 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-[3-3H]glycero-3-phosphocholine was converted to 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-[3-3H]glycero-3-phospho-(1-rac-glycerol) via a classic transphosphatidylation reaction using glycerol and cabbage phospholipase D. A theoretical explanation of unusual chemical behavior of the primary alcohol of diglycerides is also given, based on semi-empirical calculations.

Synthesis of glycerophospholipids.

Recent advances in the synthesis of phosphatidic acids, phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylcholines are described. Methods for the synthesis of some alkylacyl and alk-1-enylacyl analogues of the common diacylglycerophospholipids are also discussed. In addition, synthetic routes are described, that lead to unusual phospholipids such as compounds containing the polar group at position 2 of the glycerol moiety, glycerophospholipids containing alkanolamines of different chain lengths, and glycolphospholipids. All of the common glycerophospholipids can be prepared without the use of protecting groups. Major advances in phospholipid synthesis involve the application of novel phosphorylating agents and the use of cyclic intermediates. Although phosphatidylserines and phosphatidylthreonines as well as phosphatidylglycerols and cardiolipins can be prepared by chemical synthesis, further systematic studies are required to work out procedures that lead to these compounds in high yields.

Development of inherently echogenic liposomes as an ultrasonic contrast agent.

Ultrasonic contrast agents have been developed for improved assessment of blood flow and tissue perfusion. Many of these agents are not inherently acoustically reflective (echogenic), and nearly all are not suitable for tissue specific targeting. The purpose of this study was to develop acoustically reflective liposomes, which are suitable for antibody conjugation, without using gas or any other agent entrapment. Echogenic liposomes were prepared from phosphatidylcholine (PC), phophatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and cholesterol (CH), using a dehydration/rehydration method. The formulation was optimized for higher acoustic reflectivity by varying the lipid composition. Liposomes were imaged with a 20 MHz intravascular ultrasonic imaging catheter. Echogenicity levels were expressed using pixel gray scale. The presence of PE and PG at specific concentrations improved echogenicity due to their effects on liposomal morphology as confirmed by freeze-etch electron microscopy. The acoustic reflectivity of liposomes was retained when liposomes were treated with blood at room temperature and 37 degrees C under in vitro conditions. It was demonstrated that the liposomes were also acoustically reflective in vivo after they were injected into a miniswine model. We have developed echogenic liposomes that are stable and suitable for tissue specific targeting as a novel contrast agent. This new contrast agent can be used for ultrasonic image enhancement and/or treatment of targeted pathologic sites.

Simple synthesis of diastereomerically pure phosphatidylglycerols by phospholipase D-catalyzed transphosphatidylation.

A simple method for synthesizing diastereomerically pure phosphatidylglycerols (PtdGro), namely, 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-3'-sn-glycerol (R,R configuration) and 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol (R,S configuration), was established. For this purpose, diastereomeric 1,2-O-isopropylidene PtdGro were prepared from 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PtdCho) and enantiomeric 1,2-O-isopropylideneglycerols by transphosphatidylation with phospholipase D (PLD) from Actinomadura sp. This species was selected because of its higher transphosphatidylation activity and lower phosphatidic acid (PtdOH) formation than PLD from some Streptomyces species tested. The reaction proceeded well, giving almost no hydrolysis of PtdCho to PtdOH in a biphasic system consisting of diethyl ether and acetate buffer at 30 degrees C. The isopropylidene protective group was removed by heating the diastereomeric isopropylidene PtdGro at 100 degrees C in trimethyl borate in the presence of boric acid to obtain the desired PtdGro diastereomers. The purities of the products, which were determined by chiral-phase HPLC, were exclusively dependent on the optical purities of the original isopropylidene-glycerols used. The present method is simple and can be utilized for the synthesis of pure PtdGro diastereomers having saturated and unsaturated acyl chains.

Asymmetric in vitro synthesis of diastereomeric phosphatidylglycerols from phosphatidylcholine and glycerol by bacterial phospholipase D.

Using chiral-phase HPLC, we determined the stereochemical configuration of the phosphatidylglycerols (PtdGro) synthesized in vitro from 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PtdCho, R configuration) or 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (PtdEtn, R configuration) and glycerol by transphosphatidylation with bacterial phospholipase D (PLD). The results obtained with PLD preparations from three Streptomyces strains (S. septatus TH-2, S. halstedii K5, and S. halstedii subsp. scabies K6) and one Actinomadura species were compared with those obtained using cabbage and peanut PLD. The reaction was carried out at 30 degrees C in a biphasic system consisting of diethyl ether and acetate buffer. The resulting PtdGro were then converted into bis(3,5-dinitrophenylurethane) derivatives, which were separated on an (R)-1-(1-naphthyl)ethylamine polymer. In contrast to the cabbage and peanut PLD, which gave equimolar mixtures of the R,S and R,R diastereomers, as previously established, the bacterial PLD yielded diastereomixtures of 30-40% 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol (R,S configuration) and 60-70% 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-3'-sn-glycerol (R,R configuration). The highest disproportionation was found for the Streptomyces K6 species. The present study demonstrates that bacterial PLD-catalyzed transphosphatidylation proceeds to a considerable extent stereoselectively to produce PtdGro from PtdCho or PtdEtn and prochiral glycerol, indicating a preference for the sn-3' position of the glycerol molecule.

Preparation by spray drying of amphotericin B-phospholipid composite particles and their anticellular activity.

As a potent drug carrier for systemic fungal infections, amphotericin B(AmB)-phospholipid composite particles (APCPs) were prepared by the spray drying method. AmB and egg phosphatidylcholine, co-dissolved in methanol (0.0425-0.45 mg AmB/ml, 0.17-1.8 mg lipid/ml), was nebulized at 2 ml/min. The aerosol produced was carried by air at 1000 ml/min to the inner tubes of a serially connected distilling column system, of which the outer tubes were supplied with circulating water of 95 degrees C. The particles, by scanning electron microphotography, are spherical and submicronsized. Upon hydration of the particles in phosphate-buffered saline for 30 min at room temperature, liposome-like bilayer vesicles were formed along with AmB-phospholipid complexes, evidenced by the transmission electron microphotographs and the positive peak around 330 nm of the circular dichroism spectrum, respectively. The hemolytic abilities of the APCPs were lower than those of free drug, without loss of the antifungal activity. The suppressed hemolysis could be ascribed to the liposomes and to the complexes that are reconstituted by hydration of APCPs. The dry composite particles could circumvent the inherent instability of liposomal formulations.

Synthetic surfactants: where are we? Evidence from randomized, controlled clinical trials.

The benefits of exogenous synthetic or animal-derived surfactants for prevention or treatment of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) are well established. Data from head-to-head trials comparing animal-derived surfactants primarily with the synthetic surfactant colfosceril suggest that the major clinical advantages afforded by the presence of surfactant protein (SP)-B and SP-C in animal-derived preparations relate to faster onset of action, a reduction in the incidence of RDS when used prophylactically, and a lower incidence of air leaks and RDS-related deaths. However, no benefits in terms of overall mortality or BPD have been shown in these head-to-head comparisons. Findings from trials of a new-generation synthetic surfactant containing a peptide that mimics SP-B, as well as their follow-up study suggest that its administration improves short-term clinical outcomes compared with colfosceril and results in survival through 1 year of age, which is at least comparable, if not perhaps superior, to that seen with animal-derived surfactants.

Transmembrane movement of phosphatidylglycerol and diacylglycerol sulfhydryl analogues.

Transmembrane movement of phospholipids is a fundamental step in the process of biological membrane assembly and intracellular lipid sorting. To facilitate study of transmembrane movement, we have synthesized analogues of phosphatidylglycerol and diacylglycerol in which a sulfhydryl group replaces a hydroxyl group in the polar head group. A rapid, continuous assay for the movement of phospholipids across single-walled lipid vesicles was developed that exploits the reactivity of these analogues toward 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB), a nonpenetrating, colorimetric, sulfhydryl reagent. In the reaction of DTNB with vesicles containing phosphatidylthioglycerol, a phosphatidylglycerol analogue, two kinetic phases were seen, which represent the reaction of DTNB with phosphatidylthioglycerol in the outer and inner leaflets of the bilayer. Analysis of the slow second phase indicated that the half-time for phosphatidylthioglycerol transbilayer movement was in excess of 8 days. In a similar experiment using dioleoylthioglycerol, a diacylglycerol analogue, the reaction was complete within 15 s. The large difference in translocation rates between these two lipids indicates that the primary barrier to transmembrane movement is the polar head group and implies that phospholipid translocation events in biological membranes may not be unlike those for molecules similar to the polar head groups alone.

Brominated phospholipids as a tool for monitoring the membrane insertion of colicin A.

The intrinsic fluorescence of the colicin A thermolytic fragment does not change after insertion into normal phospholipid vesicles and is thus an unsuitable probe for monitoring the membrane insertion process. In this paper, we report the results of studies on the quenching of this fluorescence by brominated dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (Br-DOPG) vesicles. Bromine atoms located at the midpoint of the phospholipid acyl chain quench the tryptophan fluorescence, indicating contact between fluorophores of the protein and the bilayer's hydrophobic core. Addition of Br-DOPG vesicles to a protein solution quenches the tryptophan fluorescence in a time-dependent manner. This quenching can be fitted to a single-exponential function, and thus interpreted as a one-step process. This allows calculation of an apparent rate constant of protein insertion into the membrane. Parameters known to affect the insertion of the thermolytic fragment into phospholipid monolayers or vesicles (pH and negative charge density) also affect the rate constant in comparable ways. In addition to the information gained concerning membrane exposure in the steady state, this approach provides the first real-time method for measuring the insertion of colicin into membranes. It is highly quantitative and can be used on all versions of the protein, e.g., full size, proteolytic fragments, and mutants. Brominated lipids provide experimental conditions identical to normal lipids and allow for great flexibility in protein/lipid ratios and concentrations. The kinetic analysis shows clearly the existence of a two-step process involving a rapid adsorption of the protein to the lipid surface followed by a slow insertion.

Biosynthetic conversion of phosphatidylglycerol to sn-1:sn-1' bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate in a macrophage-like cell line.

Bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate has a unique stereoconfiguration of sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol and is synthesized from exogenous phosphatidylglycerol by macrophages. Previous work by our laboratory showed that the macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7 synthesizes sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate. Here we describe studies using RAW 264.7 cells that examine the biosynthetic pathway by which bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate is formed. Experiments were conducted using precursors that were specifically radiolabeled on the glycerol backbone in order to examine the stereoconfiguration of the intermediates and products formed in intact RAW 264.7 cells. The results of our studies indicate that a complex series of reactions are involved in the synthesis of bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate. In this proposed pathway phosphatidylglycerol is hydrolyzed to form 1-acyllysophosphatidylglycerol which is then acylated on the headgroup glycerol to form the sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol enantiomer of bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate. The sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol enantiomer of bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate is then thought to undergo a stereoconversion that proceeds via the required removal of the acyl group at the sn-1 position. The resulting sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol enantiomer of lysophosphatidylglycerol with the acyl moiety on the original headgroup glycerol is then acylated to form sn-glycero-1-phospho-1'-sn-glycerol bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate.