Prevalence and genetic diversity of Shibuyunji virus, a novel tick-borne phlebovirus identified in Zambia.

Tick-borne pathogens are an emerging public health threat worldwide. However, information on tick-borne viruses is scanty in sub-Saharan Africa. Here, by RT-PCR, 363 ticks (Amblyomma, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus) in the Namwala and Livingstone districts of Zambia were screened for tick-borne phleboviruses (TBPVs). TBPVs (L gene) were detected in 19 (5.2%) Rhipicephalus ticks in Namwala. All the detected TBPVs were Shibuyunji viruses. Phylogenetically, they were closely related to American dog tick phlebovirus. This study highlights the possible role of Rhipicephalus ticks as the main host of Shibuyunji virus and suggests that these viruses may be present outside the area where they were initially discovered.

First report of Lihan Tick virus (Phlebovirus, Phenuiviridae) in ticks, Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Tick-borne phenuivirus (TBPVs) comprise human and animal viruses that can cause a variety of clinical syndromes ranging from self-limiting febrile illness to fatal haemorrhagic fevers. OBJECTIVE: Detect Phlebovirus (Family Phenuiviridae) in ticks collected from domestic animals in Córdoba, Colombia. METHODS: We collected 2365 ticks from domestic animals in three municipalities of the Department of Cordoba, Colombia in 2016. Ticks were identified and pooled by species for RNA extraction. A nested real-time PCR with specific primers for Phlebovirus and a specific probe for Heartland virus (HRTV) formerly a Phlebovirus, now a Banyangvirus were performed. Also, a conventional nested PCR, with the same specific primers was used to detect other Phleboviruses, with positive reactions indicated by an amplified cDNA fragment of approximately 244 bp determined by gel electrophoresis. These bands were gel-purified and sequenced by the Sanger method. RESULTS: Using real-time RT-PCR, no positive results for HRTV were found. However, using conventional nested PCR 2.2% (5/229 pools) yielded a product of 244 bp. One positive sample was detected in a pool of Dermacentor nitens ticks collected from a horse, and the four remaining positive pools were from Rhipicephalus microplus collected from cattle. The five positive nucleotide sequences had identities of 93 to 96% compared to a section of the L-segment of Lihan Tick virus, a Phlebovirus originally detected in R. microplus ticks in China. The strongest identity (96-99%) was with Lihan Tick virus detected in R. microplus ticks from Brazil. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of viral detection in ticks in Colombia. We detected a Colombian strain of Lihan Tick virus. We recommend expanding the sampling area and carrying out more eco-epidemiological studies related to epidemiological surveillance of viruses on ticks in Colombia.

Repellency effect of flumethrin pour-on formulation against vectors of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever.

BACKGROUND: Ticks are able to transmit important diseases to humans, including Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Q fever, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, summer Russian encephalitis, and relapsing fever. AIMS: To determine the repellency effect of 1% flumethrin pour-on formulation against hard ticks. METHODS: The concentration of flumethrin pour-on formulation was 1 mg/10 kg body weight and was administered on the dorsal midline from the head to the base of the tail. The livestock included cows, goats, oxen and sheep in 2 villages in Ardabil Province, Islamic Republic of Iran. RESULTS: We studied 200 livestock comprising 5 age groups (< 2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8 and >8 years). The main hard ticks identified were Hyalomma species (62.5%) and Rhipicephalus bursa (37.5%). In the treatment village, the maximum number of ticks per animal was 11.6 in oxen, 9.5 in sheep, 8.9 in goats and 8.6 in cattle. The repellency effect of flumethrin remained for 2 months. CONCLUSIONS: Flumethrin provided 2 months protection against hard ticks. Therefore, it could be used in the livestock industry. Control of ticks is important for prevention of disease transmission.

Molecular detection of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in ticks, Greece, 2012-2014.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is transmitted to humans mainly through the bite of infected ticks. In Greece, only one clinical case has been observed, in 2008, but the seroprevalence in humans is relatively high (4.2%). To have a first insight into the circulation of CCHFV in Greece, 2000 ticks collected from livestock during 2012-2014 were tested. CCHFV was detected in 36 of the 1290 (2.8%) tick pools (1-5 ticks per pool). Two genetic lineages were identified: Europe 1 and Europe 2. Most Europe 1 sequences were obtained from Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato ticks, while most Europe 2 sequences were recovered from Rhipicephalus bursa ticks. The number of collected Hyalomma marginatum ticks (the principal vector of CCHFV) was low (0.5% of ticks) and all were CCHFV negative. Since it is not known how efficient ticks of the Rhipicephalus genus are as vectors of the virus, laboratory studies will be required to explore the role of Rhipicephalus spp. ticks in CCHFV maintenance and transmission.

Characterisation of divergent flavivirus NS3 and NS5 protein sequences detected in Rhipicephalus microplus ticks from Brazil.

Transcripts similar to those that encode the nonstructural (NS) proteins NS3 and NS5 from flaviviruses were found in a salivary gland (SG) complementary DNA (cDNA) library from the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus. Tick extracts were cultured with cells to enable the isolation of viruses capable of replicating in cultured invertebrate and vertebrate cells. Deep sequencing of the viral RNA isolated from culture supernatants provided the complete coding sequences for the NS3 and NS5 proteins and their molecular characterisation confirmed similarity with the NS3 and NS5 sequences from other flaviviruses. Despite this similarity, phylogenetic analyses revealed that this potentially novel virus may be a highly divergent member of the genus Flavivirus. Interestingly, we detected the divergent NS3 and NS5 sequences in ticks collected from several dairy farms widely distributed throughout three regions of Brazil. This is the first report of flavivirus-like transcripts in R. microplus ticks. This novel virus is a potential arbovirus because it replicated in arthropod and mammalian cells; furthermore, it was detected in a cDNA library from tick SGs and therefore may be present in tick saliva. It is important to determine whether and by what means this potential virus is transmissible and to monitor the virus as a potential emerging tick-borne zoonotic pathogen.

Evidence of lumpy skin disease virus over-wintering by transstadial persistence in Amblyomma hebraeum and transovarial persistence in Rhipicephalus decoloratus ticks.

Lumpy skin disease is a debilitating cattle disease caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), belonging to the genus Capripoxvirus. Epidemics of the disease usually occur in summer, when insect activity is high. Limited information is available on how LSDV persists during inter-epidemic periods. Transmission of LSDV by mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti has been shown to be mechanical, there is no carrier state in cattle and the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of the disease seems to be of minor importance. Recent studies in ticks have shown transstadial persistence of LSDV in Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Amblyomma hebraeum as well as transovarial persistence of the virus in Rhipicephalus decoloratus, R. appendiculatus and A. hebraeum. The over-wintering of ticks off the host as part of their life cycles is well known: A. hebraeum and R. appendiculatus over-winter, for example, on the ground as engorged nymphs/unfed (emergent) adults while R. decoloratus over-winters on the ground as engorged females. In this study, transstadial and transovarial persistence of LSDV from experimentally infected A. hebraeum nymphs and R. decoloratus females after exposure to cold temperatures of 5 °C at night and 20 °C during the day for 2 months was reported. This observation suggests possible over-wintering of the virus in these tick species.

Transovarial passage and transmission of LSDV by Amblyomma hebraeum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus decoloratus.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), an acute, sub-acute or inapparent disease of cattle, is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), a member of the genus Capripoxvirus in the family Poxviridae. LSD is characterised by high fever, formation of circumscribed skin lesions and ulcerative lesions on the mucous membranes of the mouth, respiratory and digestive tracts. It is an economically important disease due to the permanent damage to hides, the reduction in productivity and trade restrictions imposed on affected areas. Transmission has been associated with blood-feeding insects such as stable flies (Stomoxysis calcitrans) and mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti). Mechanical (intrastadial) and transstadial transmission by Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus as well as transovarial transmission by R. decoloratus have been reported. In this study transovarial passage of LSDV to larvae and subsequent transmission to recipient animals were demonstrated. The finding of transovarial passage of LSDV in female ticks shows the potential for A. hebraeum, R. appendiculatus and R. decoloratus to be reservoir hosts for LSDV.

Hard ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in the Colombian Caribbean harbor the Jingmen tick virus: an emerging arbovirus of public health concern.

BACKGROUND: Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites involved in transmitting viruses of public health importance. The objective of this work was to identify the Jingmen tick virus in hard ticks from the Colombian Caribbean, an arbovirus of importance for public health. METHODS: Ticks were collected in rural areas of Córdoba and Cesar, Colombia. Taxonomic identification of ticks was carried out, and pools of 13 individuals were formed. RNA extraction was performed. Library preparation was performed with the MGIEasy kit, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) with MGI equipment. Bioinformatic analyses and taxonomic assignments were performed using the Galaxy platform, and phylogenetic analyses were done using IQ-TREE2. RESULTS: A total of 766 ticks were collected, of which 87.33% (669/766) were Rhipicephalus microplus, 5.4% (42/766) Dermacentor nitens, 4.2% (32/766) Rhipicephalus linnaei, and 3.0% (23/766) Amblyomma dissimile. Complete and partial segments 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Jingmen tick virus (JMTV) were detected in the metatranscriptome of the species R. microplus, D. nitens, and A. dissimile. The JMTVs detected are phylogenetically related to JMTVs detected in Aedes albopictus in France, JMTVs detected in R. microplus in Trinidad and Tobago, JMTVs in R. microplus and A. variegatum in the French Antilles, and JMTVs detected in R. microplus in Colombia. Interestingly, our sequences clustered closely with JMTV detected in humans from Kosovo. CONCLUSIONS: JMTV was detected in R. microplus, D. nitens, and A. dissimile. JMTV could pose a risk to humans. Therefore, it is vital to establish epidemiological surveillance measures to better understand the possible role of JMTV in tropical diseases.

The ecology, genetic diversity, and phylogeny of Huaiyangshan virus in China.

Surveys were carried out to better understand the tick vector ecology and genetic diversity of Huaiyangshan virus (HYSV) in both regions of endemicity and regions of nonendemicity. Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks were dominant in regions of endemicity, while Rhipicephalus microplus is more abundant in regions of nonendemicity. HYSV RNA was found in human and both tick species, with greater prevalence in H. longicornis and lesser prevalence in R. microplus. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that HYSV is a novel species of the genus Phlebovirus.

Mechanical transmission of lumpy skin disease virus by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus male ticks.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically important, acute or sub-acute, viral disease of cattle that occurs across Africa and in the Middle East. The aim of this study was to investigate if lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) can be transmitted mechanically by African brown ear ticks (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neum.). Laboratory-bred R. appendiculatus males were fed on experimentally infected viraemic 'donor' cattle. Partially fed male ticks were then transferred to feed on an uninfected 'recipient' cow. The recipient animal became viraemic, showed mild clinical signs of LSD and seroconverted. Additionally, R. appendiculatus males were found to transmit LSDV through feeding on skin lacking visible lesions, demonstrating that viraemic animals without lesions at the feeding site of ticks may be a source of infection. This is the first time that transmission of poxviruses by a tick species has been demonstrated and the importance of this mode of transmission in the spread of LSDV in endemic settings is discussed.

[Molecular-genetic characterization of the Bhanja virus (BHAV) and the Razdan virus (RAZV) (Bunyaviridae, Phlebovirus) isolated from the Ixodes ticks Rhipicephalus bursa (Canestrini and Fanzago, 1878) and Dermacentor marginatus (Sulzer, 1776) in transcaucasus].

Two bunyaviruses, Bhanja (BHAV, LEIV-Az1818) isolated from the Ixodes ticks Rhipecephalus bursa (Canestrini and Fanzago, 1878) in Azerbaijan (1973) and Razdan (RAZV; strain LEIV-Arm2741) isolated from the Dermacentor marginatus (Sulzer, 1776) ticks in Armenia (1972), were de novo sequenced (on the Illumina platform). The amino acid identity between these viruses proteins were 95.8% (RdRp, L-segment), 90.3% (GnGc, M-segment), and 92.5% (N, S-segment). Thus, RAZV was classified to BHAV group. GnGc protein identity of RAZV withEuropean BHAV strains is more than 90%. With the African Forécariah virus (FORV) RAZV has 85% identity. BHAV LEIV-Az1818 is most closely related to the Indian strain BHAV IG690 (99%), while showing 90% identity with the European BHAV isolates. The genome structure of BHAV and RAZV is typical of the tick-transmitted phleboviruses. Based onthe result of the molecular-genetic and phylogenetic analysis RAZV has been classified as belonging to BHAVgroup in the genus Phlebovirus (Bunyaviridae).

Cutaneous hypersensitivity test to evaluate phage display anti-tick borne vaccine antigen candidates.

Early experiments performed by our group with the phage display technique revealed the potential for using epitope-displaying phages (mimotopes) as a tool for tick antigen discovery. Thus, as a preliminary study, inflammatory reactions induced by phage display tick-borne candidates were investigated by using the cutaneous hypersensitivity test. The profile of selected Rhipicephalus microplus mimotopes was assessed on tick field-exposed cattle and our data indicated a pattern similar to immediate hypersensitivity reaction and not a delayed immune response as expected. However, the wild-type phage inoculation surprisingly induced a strong immediate response on its own. Such reactions indicate that the wild-type phage may have hidden many of the potential reactions raised by the mimotopes. The study of the inflammatory reactions to these phage mimotopes in tick-infested hosts may provide basic information about the immune reaction. Finally, this work is of relevance for when considering research alternatives for finding and characterization of antigens by the phage display technique.

Virome analysis of three Ixodidae ticks species from Colombia: A potential strategy for discovering and surveying tick-borne viruses.

Ticks are a group of obligate blood-sucking ectoparasites that play a critical role in transmitting several important zoonotic pathogens that can infect animals and humans. Viruses are part of the tick microbiome and are involved in the transmission of important diseases. Furthermore, the little information on these as etiological agents of zoonoses suggests the need to study these microorganisms. For this reason, in this study, we sought to characterize the virome in Rhipicephalus microplus, Dermacentor nitens, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l., which were collected from different domestic animals in Antioquia, Colombia. RNA sequencing was used for virome characterization in these three tick species, using RNA-dependent polymerase as a marker gene. Forty-eight sequences corresponding to 14 different viruses were identified, some of which were previously identified in the tick's virome. Overall, these data indicate that ticks from domestic animals in cattle farms harbor a wide viral diversity at the local scale. Thus, the metatranscriptomic approach provides important baseline information for monitoring the tick virome and to develop future studies on their biology, host-virus interactions, host range, worldwide distribution, and finally, their potential role as emerging vector-borne agents.

Molecular detection of dugbe orthonairovirus in cattle and their infesting ticks (Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus)) in Nigeria.

Dugbe orthonairovirus (DUGV), a tick-borne zoonotic arbovirus, was first isolated in 1964 in Nigeria. For over four decades, no active surveillance was conducted to monitor the spread and genetic variation of DUGV. This study detected and genetically characterized DUGV circulating in cattle and their infesting ticks (Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus)) in Kwara State, North-Central Nigeria. Blood and or ticks were collected from 1051 cattle at 31 sampling sites (abattoirs and farms) across 10 local government areas of the State. DUGV detection was carried out by RT-qPCR, and positive samples sequenced and phylogenetically analysed. A total of 11824 ticks, mostly A. variegatum (36.0%) and R. (B.) microplus (63.9%), were obtained with mean tick burden of 12 ticks/cattle. Thirty-four (32 A. variegatum and two R. (B.) microplus) of 4644 examined ticks were DUGV-positive, whereas all of the cattle sera tested negative for DUGV genome. Whole genome sequence (S, M and L segments) and phylogenetic analyses indicate that the positive samples shared up to 99.88% nucleotide identity with and clustered around the Nigerian DUGV prototype strain IbAr 1792. Hence, DUGV with high similarity to the previously characterised strain has been detected in Nigeria. To our knowledge, this is the first report of DUGV in North-Central Nigeria and the most recent information after its last surveillance in 1974.

Tick-borne pathogens, including Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, at livestock markets and slaughterhouses in western Kenya.

Vectors of emerging infectious diseases have expanded their distributional ranges in recent decades due to increased global travel, trade connectivity and climate change. Transboundary range shifts, arising from the continuous movement of humans and livestock across borders, are of particular disease control concern. Several tick-borne diseases are known to circulate between eastern Uganda and the western counties of Kenya, with one fatal case of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) reported in 2000 in western Kenya. Recent reports of CCHF in Uganda have highlighted the risk of cross-border disease translocation and the importance of establishing inter-epidemic, early warning systems to detect possible outbreaks. We therefore carried out surveillance of tick-borne zoonotic pathogens at livestock markets and slaughterhouses in three counties of western Kenya that neighbour Uganda. Ticks and other ectoparasites were collected from livestock and identified using morphological keys. The two most frequently sampled tick species were Rhipicephalus decoloratus (35%) and Amblyomma variegatum (30%); Ctenocephalides felis fleas and Haematopinus suis lice were also present. In total, 486 ticks, lice and fleas were screened for pathogen presence using established molecular workflows incorporating high-resolution melting analysis and identified through sequencing of PCR products. We detected CCHF virus in Rh. decoloratus and Rhipicephalus sp. cattle ticks, and 82 of 96 pools of Am. variegatum were positive for Rickettsia africae. Apicomplexan protozoa and bacteria of veterinary importance, such as Theileria parva, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale, were primarily detected in rhipicephaline ticks. Our findings show the presence of several pathogens of public health and veterinary importance in ticks from livestock at livestock markets and slaughterhouses in western Kenya. Confirmation of CCHF virus, a Nairovirus that causes haemorrhagic fever with a high case fatality rate in humans, highlights the risk of under-diagnosed zoonotic diseases and calls for continuous surveillance and the development of preventative measures.

Metatranscriptomic virome assessment of Rhipicephalus microplus from Colombia.

Ticks (Ixodida) are hematophagous ectoparasites that harbor and transmit diverse species of viruses, some of which cause serious diseases with worldwide veterinary and human health consequences. Rhipicephalus microplus is an important cattle tick in Colombia, where it causes significant economic losses. Despite the importance of this tick, its viral profile is unknown. RNA sequencing was used in this study as a surveillance method for virus detection in R. microplus. Most of the viral origin contigs were assigned to two putative viruses: one chuvirus (Wuhan tick virus 2) and one phlebovirus-like (Lihan tick virus). In addition, viral contigs corresponding to two jingmenviruses previously reported in R. microplus from China and Brazil were detected, as well as a novel putative tymovirus, named here as Antioquia tymovirus-like 1 (ATV-like 1). The presence of some of these viruses across numerous regions in the world could have several explanations, including i) a long-term association between those viruses and R. microplus and ii) a consequence of livestock historical trade. Our results shed new light on the virus diversity of this tick species and provide a basis for further studies on the evolutionary history and pathogenic potential of these interesting viruses.

Multiple orthonairoviruses including Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Tamdy virus and the novel Meram virus in Anatolia.

We conducted orthonairovirus RNA screening of 7043 tick specimens-representing 16 species-collected from various regions of Anatolia. In 602 pools, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) Europe 1 and 2 lineages were detected in seven pools (1.1 %) comprising Hyalomma marginatum, Hyalomma scupense, Rhipicephalus bursa, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato and Rhipicephalus turanicus ticks. In pools of Hyalomma aegyptium, we detected Tamdy virus (TAMV) and an unclassified nairovirus sequence. Next-generation sequencing revealed complete coding regions of three CCHFV Europe 2 (AP92-like) viruses, TAMV and the novel orthonairovirus, tentatively named herein as Meram virus. We further performed in silico functional analysis of all available CCHFV Europe 2, TAMV, Meram and related virus genomes. The CCHFV Europe 2 viruses possessed several conserved motifs, including those with OTU-like cysteine protease activity. Probable recombinations were identified in L genome segments of CCHFV and TAMV. Through phylogeny reconstruction using individual genome segments, Meram virus emerged as a distinct virus among species within the Orthonairovirus genus. It further exhibited conserved motifs associated with RNA binding, encapsidation, signal peptidase cleavage, post-translational modification, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and OTU-like activities. Bole tick virus 3 was also detected in two pools with CCHFV reactivity. Hereby, we describe a novel tick-associated orthonairovirus, in a CCHFV-endemic region with confirmed TAMV activity. Human and animal health impact of these viruses need to be addressed.

RNA Viruses of Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipicephalus microplus and Cattle Susceptibility in the French Antilles.

Ticks transmit a wide variety of pathogens including bacteria, parasites and viruses. Over the last decade, numerous novel viruses have been described in arthropods, including ticks, and their characterization has provided new insights into RNA virus diversity and evolution. However, little is known about their ability to infect vertebrates. As very few studies have described the diversity of viruses present in ticks from the Caribbean, we implemented an RNA-sequencing approach on Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipicephalus microplus ticks collected from cattle in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Among the viral communities infecting Caribbean ticks, we selected four viruses belonging to the Chuviridae, Phenuiviridae and Flaviviridae families for further characterization and designing antibody screening tests. While viral prevalence in individual tick samples revealed high infection rates, suggesting a high level of exposure of Caribbean cattle to these viruses, no seropositive animals were detected. These results suggest that the Chuviridae- and Phenuiviridae-related viruses identified in the present study are more likely tick endosymbionts, raising the question of the epidemiological significance of their occurrence in ticks, especially regarding their possible impact on tick biology and vector capacity. The characterization of these viruses might open the door to new ways of preventing and controlling tick-borne diseases.

Kupe virus, a new virus in the family bunyaviridae, genus nairovirus, kenya.

We have previously described isolation and preliminary identification of a virus related to Dugbe virus (DUGV), family Bunyaviridae, genus Nairovirus. Six isolates of the virus were obtained from pools of Amblyomma gemma and Rhipicephalus pulchellus ticks collected from hides of cattle in Nairobi, Kenya, in October 1999. We report results of further characterization of this virus, including growth kinetics in cell culture and full-length genome sequencing and genetic characterization, which show it to be distinct from DUGV. We suggest that this is a new virus in the family Bunyaviridae, genus Nairovirus, and we propose that it be designated Kupe virus.

Transmission of lumpy skin disease virus: A short review.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a viral transboundary disease endemic throughout Africa and of high economic importance that affects cattle and domestic water buffaloes. Since 2012, the disease has spread rapidly and widely throughout the Middle Eastern and Balkan regions, southern Caucasus and parts of the Russian Federation. Before vaccination campaigns took their full effect, the disease continued spreading from region to region, mainly showing seasonal patterns despite implementing control and eradication measures. The disease is capable of appearing several hundred kilometers away from initial (focal) outbreak sites within a short time period. These incursions have triggered a long-awaited renewed scientific interest in LSD resulting in the initiation of novel research into broad aspects of the disease, including epidemiology, modes of transmission and associated risk factors. Long-distance dispersal of LSDV seems to occur via the movement of infected animals, but distinct seasonal patterns indicate that arthropod-borne transmission is most likely responsible for the swift and aggressive short-distance spread of the disease. Elucidating the mechanisms of transmission of LSDV will enable the development of more targeted and effective actions for containment and eradication of the virus. The mode of vector-borne transmission of the disease is most likely mechanical, but there is no clear-cut evidence to confirm or disprove this assumption. To date, the most likely vectors for LSDV transmission are blood-sucking arthropods such as stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti), and hard ticks (Rhipicephalus and Amblyomma species). New evidence suggests that the ubiquitous, synanthropic house fly, Musca domestica, may also play a role in LSDV transmission, but this has not yet been tested in a clinical setting. The aim of this review is to compile and discuss the earlier as well as the most recent research data on the transmission of LSDV.