Viral Detection: Past, Present, and Future.

Viruses are essentially composed of a nucleic acid (segmented or not, DNA, or RNA) and a protein coat. Despite their simplicity, these small pathogens are responsible for significant economic and humanitarian losses that have had dramatic consequences in the course of human history. Since their discovery, scientists have developed different strategies to efficiently detect viruses, using all possible viral features. Viruses shape, proteins, and nucleic acid are used in viral detection. In this review, the development of these techniques, especially for plant and mammalian viruses, their strengths and weaknesses as well as the latest cutting-edge technologies that may be playing important roles in the years to come are described.

Medical virology of hepatitis B: how it began and where we are now.

Infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may lead to acute or chronic hepatitis. HBV infections were previously much more frequent but there are still 240 million chronic HBV carriers today and ca. 620,000 die per year from the late sequelae liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis B was recognized as a disease in ancient times, but its etiologic agent was only recently identified. The first clue in unraveling this mystery was the discovery of an enigmatic serum protein named Australia antigen 50 years ago by Baruch Blumberg. Some years later this was recognized to be the HBV surface antigen (HBsAg). Detection of HBsAg allowed for the first time screening of inapparently infected blood donors for a dangerous pathogen. The need to diagnose clinically silent HBV infections was a strong driving force in the development of modern virus diagnostics. HBsAg was the first infection marker to be assayed with a highly sensitive radio immune assay. HBV itself was among the first viruses to be detected by assay of its DNA genome and IgM antibodies against the HBV core antigen were the first to be selectively detected by the anti-µ capture assay. The cloning and sequencing of the HBV genome in 1978 paved the way to understand the viral life cycle, and allowed development of efficient vaccines and drugs. Today's hepatitis B vaccine was the first vaccine produced by gene technology. Among the problems that still remain today are the inability to achieve a complete cure of chronic HBV infections, the recognition of occult HBV infections, their potential reactivation and the incomplete protection against escape mutants and heterologous HBV genotypes by HBV vaccines.

Laboratory hemostasis: milestones in Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine.

Hemostasis is a delicate, dynamic and intricate system, in which pro- and anti-coagulant forces cooperate for either maintaining blood fluidity under normal conditions, or else will prompt blood clot generation to limit the bleeding when the integrity of blood vessels is jeopardized. Excessive prevalence of anticoagulant forces leads to hemorrhage, whereas excessive activation of procoagulant forces triggers excessive coagulation and thrombosis. The hemostasis laboratory performs a variety of first, second and third line tests, and plays a pivotal role in diagnostic and monitoring of most hemostasis disturbances. Since the leading targets of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine include promotion of progress in fundamental and applied research, along with publication of guidelines and recommendations in laboratory diagnostics, this journal is an ideal source of information on current developments in the laboratory technology of hemostasis, and this article is aimed to celebrate some of the most important and popular articles ever published by the journal in the filed of laboratory hemostasis.

Genetics and molecular biology in laboratory medicine, 1963-2013.

The past 50 years have seen many changes in laboratory medicine, either as causes or consequences of increases in productivity and expansion of the range of information which can be provided. The drivers and facilitators of change in relation to clinical applications of molecular biology included the need for diagnostic tools for genetic diseases and technical advances such as PCR and sequencing. However, molecular biology techniques have proved to have far wider applications, from detection of infectious agents to molecular characterization of tumors. Journals such as Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine play an important role in communication of these advances to the laboratory medicine community and in publishing evaluations of their practical value.

Laboratory hematology in the history of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine.

BACKGROUND: For the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the journal Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (CCLM), an historic overview of papers that the journal has published in the field of laboratory hematology (LH) is presented. METHODS: All past volumes of CCLM were screened for papers on LH and these were categorized. Bibliographic data of these papers were also analyzed. RESULTS: CCLM published in total 387 LH papers. The absolute number of LH papers published annually showed a significant increase over the years since 1985. Also the share of LH papers demonstrated a steady increase (overall mean 5%, but mean 8% over the past 4 years). The most frequent category was coagulation and fibrinolysis (23.5%). Authors from Germany contributed the most LH papers to the journal (22.7%), followed by the Netherlands and Italy (16.3 and 13.2%, respectively). Recent citation data indicated that other publications cited LH review papers much more frequently than other types of papers. CONCLUSIONS: The history of the journal reflects the emergence and development of laboratory hematology as a separate discipline of laboratory medicine.

A history of HbA1c through Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine.

HbA(1c) was discovered in the late 1960s and its use as marker of glycemic control has gradually increased over the course of the last four decades. Recognized as the gold standard of diabetic survey, this parameter was successfully implemented in clinical practice in the 1970s and 1980s and internationally standardized in the 1990s and 2000s. The use of standardized and well-controlled methods, with well-defined performance criteria, has recently opened new directions for HbA(1c) use in patient care, e.g., for diabetes diagnosis. Many reports devoted to HbA1c have been published in Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (CCLM) journal. This review reminds the major steps of HbA(1c) history, with a special emphasis on the contribution of CCLM in this field.

[The practical medicine and its reformation in XVII-XIX centuries, report 2: the becoming of clinical medicine].

The article deals with the becoming of clinical medicine in chronologic scope from 1800 to middle 1870s. The major scientific achievements related to the application of practical medicine such methods as clinical anatomical comparison, laboratory experiment, chemical analysis, physical, instrumental, functional, laboratory diagnostics are discussed.

[From classificational medicine to clinical medicine (the end of the XVIII century to 1870s). Communication 3. The second stage of clinical medicine development: introduction of methods of laboratory experiment and chemical analysis].

The article concerns the end stage of clinical medicine establishment covering the period from early 1840s to the middle 1870s of the XIX century. Basic scientific achievements related to introduction into practical medicine of the methods of laboratory experiment and chemical analysis are reviewed.

[Diagnostic workup in front of an hypereosinophilia in 2020]. / Démarche diagnostique devant une hyperéosinophilie en 2020.

The discovery of eosinophilia above 1.5 G/L should not be considered innocuous, requiring monitoring for etiology and possible secondary organ damage. Among these, cardiac localization is the most worrying, sometimes indolent, to be systematically sought by ultrasound and magnetic resonance. The potential etiologies are very numerous, mostly reactive and corticosensitive, much more rarely clonal in relation to a malignant hemopathy usually chronic and myeloid, sometimes sensitive to tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

[Prof. Kazimierz Lachowicz (MD)--100th anniversary of birthday]. / Prof. dr med. Kazimierz Lachowicz--na 100-lecie urodzin.

Prof. Kazimierz Lachowicz, MD, Dipl. Medical Microbiology, was the founder and the first Director of the three regional branches of National Institute of Hygiene (NIH),--in Stanislawów (Eastern Poland) (1937-43), now in Ukrainian Ivano-Frankivsk, maritime in Gdynia (1945), now Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, and in Gdansk (1945-52). In NIH, Warsaw, 1953-75 he directed Intestinal Infection Laboratory of Bacteriological Dept., later founded and directed the National Shigella Centre as one of laboratories co-working with WHO for epidemiological and bacteriological surveillance of infectious diseases in Europe and in the some countries in the world. He was send in 1966-68 as a WHO expert to Ulan Bator to help to organize the modern laboratory service for bacteriological and epidemiological surveillance of infectious diseases in Mongolia. All his life he was involved in professional education of staff in practice of medical laboratory service: in Stanislavov, at Microbiological Department of Gdansk University (1950-52) and in post-graduate training courses for Sanitary-Hygiene School at NIH. He was active as a member of International Subcommittee on Taxonomy of Enterobacteriaceae of International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) of International Association of Microbiological Societies (IAMS). The task was to publish the modern definition of all known bacteria published under different names and modern taxonomical scheme approved by all. For many years he was member of NIH Scientific Council. Held post of deputy Director of NIH (1960-62), Scientific Secretary of the Institute (1964-65), and for many years He was a member of the Editorial Board of "Epidemiological Review" and one of the founders of Polish Association of Epidemiologists and Infectious Diseases Specialists.

Out with the old, in with the new: Virtual versus physical crossmatching in the modern era.

The virtual crossmatch (VXM) is gaining acceptance as an alternative approach to assess donor:recipient compatibility prior to transplantation. In contrast to a physical crossmatch, the virtual crossmatch does not require viable donor cells but rather relies on complete HLA typing of the donor and current antibody assessment of the recipient. Thus, the VXM can be performed in minutes which allows for faster transplant decisions thereby increasing the likelihood that organs can be shipped across significant distances yet safely transplanted. Here, we present a brief review of the past 50 years of histocompatibility testing; from the original complement-dependent cytotoxicity crossmatch in 1969 to the new era of molecular HLA typing, solid-phase antibody testing and virtual crossmatching. These advancements have shaped a paradigm shift in our approach to transplantation. That is, foregoing a prospective physical crossmatch in favor of a VXM. In this review, we undertake an in-depth analysis of the pros- and cons- of physical and virtual crossmatching.Finally, we provide objective data on the selected use of the VXM which demonstrate the value of a VXM in lieu of the traditional physical crossmatch for safe and efficient organ transplantation.

[Laboratory of Biopolymer Compounds].

General information is presented concerning the Laboratory of Biological Polymeric Compounds at the Institute of Microbiology and Virology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; equipment, analytical and biophysical methods applied in the laboratory are listed.

Diagnosis of some genital-tract infections: part 1. An historical perspective.

Making a prompt and accurate diagnosis of genital tract infections is the key to instituting appropriate treatment and the linchpin of sexually transmitted infection control. We present a brief history, not covering syphilis, of diagnostic events for each of six bacteria and one protozoan from the time of discovery up to the molecular revolution. The latter is touched upon but its impact will form the substance of a further presentation. Here, hindsight is helpful in understanding the way in which progress was made over 135 years, often when microbiology, not even seen as a distinct discipline, had a difficult time in providing what was required in terms of dependable diagnostic techniques. Gram-staining, growth on artificial media, growth in cultured cells, enzyme immunoassays, metabolic and immunofluorescence tests have all had their place and some still do despite the avalanche of the molecular era. Serology to determine the existence of organism-specific antibodies has been important in managing syphilis, but has only sometimes been helpful in supporting a diagnosis for other infections and has rarely been the primary deciding factor.

Molecular diagnostics: a historical perspective.

The rapid growth in molecular diagnostic testing, which has averaged between 10% and 20% per year for the past 5 years, is largely attributable to both breakthroughs in our basic understanding (i.e., the Human Genome Project) and in applied technology. In the past decade, molecular applications have moved from labor-intensive and manual to rapid and automated due to improvements in sample extraction, target amplification, and sensitive and specific detection schema. This review describes some of the more significant technological milestones of the past 10 years and, when tied to basic and applied research, how these have led to important clinical applications. The next decade promises even more exciting technologies and applications for the field of molecular laboratory medicine.