Beyond thirst: Cravings for non-alcoholic beverages including soft drink.

Cravings for a range of substances including drugs, alcohol, and food have been shown to predict subsequent consumption or use. However, this link has not yet been systematically examined for beverages other than alcohol. The present study aimed to provide a comprehensive investigation of cravings for non-alcoholic beverages and their link to consumption. Participants were 128 undergraduate students (17-25 years) who completed a craving diary and daily consumption measure over a period of a week. Cravings were reported for a range of beverages, including tea, juice, and flavoured milk, but by far the most craved beverages were water, coffee, and soft drink. Stronger cravings were associated with a greater likelihood of drinking and drinking more of the craved beverage. This was particularly the case for soft drink. Unlike water, cravings for coffee and soft drink were triggered by factors other than thirst, and the number of cravings predicted the total amount drunk over the week. The findings demonstrate the existence of cravings for non-alcoholic beverages such as soft drink, and point to these cravings as a potential target for reducing consumption.

A Systematic Review of the Effect of Dietary Supplements on Cognitive Performance in Healthy Young Adults and Military Personnel.

Intake of dietary supplements has increased, despite evidence that some of these have adverse side effects and uncertainty about their effectiveness. This systematic review examined the evidence for the cognitive benefits of a wide range of dietary supplements in healthy young adult samples; the aim was to identify if any might be useful for optimising cognitive performance during deployment in military personnel. Searches were conducted in 9 databases and 13 grey literature repositories for relevant studies published between January 2000 and June 2017. Eligible studies recruited healthy young adults (18-35 years), administered a legal dietary supplement, included a comparison control group, and assessed cognitive outcome(s). Thirty-seven of 394 identified studies met inclusion criteria and were included for synthesis. Most research was deemed of low quality (72.97%; SIGN50 guidelines), highlighting the need for sound empirical research in this area. Nonetheless, we suggest that tyrosine or caffeine could be used in healthy young adults in a military context to enhance cognitive performance when personnel are sleep-deprived. Caffeine also has the potential benefit of improving vigilance and attention during sustained operations offering little opportunity for sleep. Inconsistent findings and methodological limitations preclude firm recommendations about the use of other specific dietary supplements.

The food craving experience: Thoughts, images and resistance as predictors of craving intensity and consumption.

The Elaborated-Intrusion Theory of Desire (Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005) suggests that cravings are made up of two distinct stages whereby an initial, seemingly spontaneous craving-related thought is sufficiently intrusive and pleasant for it then to be elaborated with vivid mental imagery. Previous questionnaire studies have investigated the craving experience with a particular focus on the role of imagery. The present study sought to provide a fuller account of the craving process by investigating the role of craving-related thoughts alongside imagery in predicting craving intensity. Further, the present study sought to investigate predictors of craving-related consumption, including spontaneous strategies used to resist cravings. Two-hundred and forty-nine women completed an online questionnaire which asked about their most recent food craving experience. Results showed that around a third of participants reported craving-related thoughts and about half reported craving-related imagery. Craving-related imagery appeared to be a more important predictor of craving intensity than craving-related thoughts; however, neither predicted craving-related consumption. One resistance strategy, 'recognised it was just a thought', was successful in decreasing the likelihood of eating in response to craving. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed in the context of the Elaborated-Intrusion Theory.

Cognitive defusion and guided imagery tasks reduce naturalistic food cravings and consumption: A field study.

The present study investigated the effect of two craving reduction techniques, namely, cognitive defusion and guided imagery, on naturalistic food cravings. These techniques targeted the intrusion and elaboration stages of the craving process, respectively (Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005). Participants underwent a seven-day baseline period followed by a seven-day intervention period, during which they recorded their food cravings as they occurred using online diaries accessed via smartphone. In the intervention period, participants were randomly assigned to one of cognitive defusion, guided imagery or control conditions. Participants in the cognitive defusion and guided imagery conditions listened to three-minute audio clips containing their respective instructions every time they experienced a food craving, and rated their craving intensity before and after the intervention, while the control participants recorded their cravings as they did in the baseline week. Results showed that both cognitive defusion and guided imagery techniques reduced craving frequency, intensity, the likelihood of consumption following cravings, and craving-related calorie intake, consistent with predictions. These findings show that cognitive defusion and guided imagery are useful for dealing with naturally occurring cravings across a range of foods, and can reduce craving-related consumption in everyday life.

Acceptance- and imagery-based strategies can reduce chocolate cravings: A test of the elaborated-intrusion theory of desire.

The elaborated-intrusion theory of desire proposes that craving is a two-stage process whereby initial intrusions about a desired target are subsequently elaborated with mental imagery. The present study tested whether the craving reduction strategies of cognitive defusion and guided imagery could differentially target the intrusion and elaboration stages, respectively, and thus differentially impact the craving process. Participants were randomly assigned to a cognitive defusion, a guided imagery or a mind-wandering control condition. Pre- and post-intervention chocolate-related thoughts, intrusiveness of thoughts, vividness of imagery, craving intensity, and chocolate consumption were compared. Experiment 1 recruited a general sample of young women (n = 94), whereas Experiment 2 recruited a sample of chocolate cravers who wanted to reduce their chocolate consumption (n = 97). Across both experiments, cognitive defusion lowered intrusiveness of thoughts, vividness of imagery and craving intensity. Guided imagery reduced chocolate-related thoughts, intrusiveness, vividness and craving intensity for chocolate cravers (Experiment 2), but not for the general sample (Experiment 1). There were no group differences in chocolate consumption in either experiment. Results add to existing evidence supporting the elaborated-intrusion theory of desire in the food domain, and suggest that acceptance- and imagery-based techniques have potential for use in combatting problematic cravings.

Non-food odorants reduce chocolate cravings.

The present study compared the relative effectiveness of simple, commercially available food and non-food olfactory tasks on chocolate craving reduction. Chocolate cravings were induced by a series of coloured photographs and 67 undergraduate women were asked to smell one of three odours (green apple, jasmine, or water). The non-food odorant (jasmine) significantly reduced chocolate cravings relative to both the food and control odorants. Thus simple non-food odorants offer potential scope as a technique for curbing unwanted food cravings.

Dynamic visual noise reduces confidence in short-term memory for visual information.

Previous research has shown effects of the visual interference technique, dynamic visual noise (DVN), on visual imagery, but not on visual short-term memory, unless retention of precise visual detail is required. This study tested the prediction that DVN does also affect retention of gross visual information, specifically by reducing confidence. Participants performed a matrix pattern memory task with three retention interval interference conditions (DVN, static visual noise and no interference control) that varied from trial to trial. At recall, participants indicated whether or not they were sure of their responses. As in previous research, DVN did not impair recall accuracy or latency on the task, but it did reduce recall confidence relative to static visual noise and no interference. We conclude that DVN does distort visual representations in short-term memory, but standard coarse-grained recall measures are insensitive to these distortions.

Saccharide effects on cognition and well-being in middle-aged adults: a randomized controlled trial.

The current study used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design to investigate the effects of saccharide supplementation on cognition and well-being in middle-aged adults. Participants (N = 109; 45-60 years) took a teaspoon of a combination of saccharides or a placebo twice daily for 12 weeks (3.6 g per day). Before and after this supplementation period, participants completed alternate forms of standardized tests of cognition and self-report measures of well-being. Significant beneficial effects of saccharide supplementation were found for memory performance and indicators of well-being. The potential for these nutrients to optimize cognitive function and well-being in older adults warrants ongoing investigation.

The selective impact of chocolate craving on visuospatial working memory.

The present study aimed to extend previous research into cognitive impairments as a consequence of food craving. In particular, the study examined the impact of chocolate craving on the three components of working memory: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive, assessed by the digit span, Corsi blocks, and the double span tasks, respectively. A sample of 96 female undergraduate students was randomly assigned to a craving or control condition. Participants in the craving condition abstained from eating chocolate for 24h prior to testing, and performed the cognitive tasks in the presence of chocolate, a manipulation that successfully elicited chocolate cravings. As predicted on the basis of the visual imagery nature of food cravings, participants in the craving condition performed more poorly on the Corsi blocks task than control participants, but the groups did not differ on the digit span or double span measures. These results indicate that chocolate cravings selectively disrupt performance on visuospatial tasks. According to the working memory model, this occurs because food cravings compete for limited visuospatial working memory resources. These findings have practical implications in that visuospatial memory plays an important role in many everyday behaviours.

Competing visual and olfactory imagery tasks suppress craving for coffee.

Using the elaborated intrusion theory of desire as a theoretical basis, the present experiments investigated whether mutual competition between modality-specific tasks and desire-related imagery can suppress cravings for caffeine--in particular, coffee. Data from a pilot survey (Experiment 1) in 106 female undergraduate habitual coffee drinkers showed that coffee cravings are characterized predominantly by sensory images in the visual, olfactory, and gustatory modalities. Experiments 2 and 3 tested the prediction that a competing visual or olfactory imagery task would reduce such cravings, relative to an auditory imagery task. In each experiment, 90 female undergraduate habitual coffee drinkers were asked to forego their morning cup of coffee and were subsequently exposed to pictures of coffee (Experiment 2) or actual coffee (Experiment 3). After the craving induction protocol, participants completed either a visual, auditory, or olfactory imagery task with neutral (i.e., non-coffee-related) content. As predicted, the visual and olfactory imagery tasks reduced participants' cravings for coffee, whereas the auditory task did not. Imagery techniques in the visual or olfactory domain could provide a useful adjunct to the behavioral regime of caffeine fading for consumers who are trying to quit caffeine use or reduce their intake.

Modality-specific imagery reduces cravings for food: an application of the elaborated intrusion theory of desire to food craving.

Based on converging evidence that visual and olfactory images are key components of food cravings, the authors tested a central prediction of the elaborated intrusion theory of desire, that mutual competition between modality-specific tasks and desire-related imagery can suppress such cravings. In each of Experiments 1 and 2, 90 undergraduate women underwent an imaginal food craving induction protocol and then completed either a visual, auditory, or olfactory imagery task. As predicted, the visual and olfactory imagery tasks were superior to the auditory imagery task in reducing participants' craving for food in general (Experiment 1) and for chocolate in particular (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 replicated these findings in a sample of 96 women using a nonimagery craving induction procedure involving a combination of chocolate deprivation and exposure to chocolate cues. Thus, imagery techniques in the visual or olfactory domain hold promise for treating problematic cravings in disordered eating populations.

Effects of hunger and visuo-spatial interference on imagery-induced food cravings.

The present study investigated the effects of hunger and visuo-spatial interference on imagery-induced food cravings. Forty-two women were randomly assigned to a hungry (no food for prior 4h) or not hungry condition. Participants were asked to form and maintain images of desired foods while looking at a blank computer screen (control condition) or performing a task designed to load the visuo-spatial sketchpad of working memory (dynamic visual noise). They then rated the vividness of their images and their craving intensity. Although hungry participants reported stronger food cravings, dynamic visual noise made images less vivid and cravings less intense, irrespective of participant hunger status. Thus concurrent visuo-spatial processing may offer a useful technique for treating problematic food cravings that are predominantly psychological in origin, as well as those that are hunger-driven.

Reduction of vividness and associated craving in personalized food imagery.

This study aimed to extend recent experimental work on the efficacy of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques for reducing food cravings by adopting a more naturalistic methodology. Fifty undergraduate women formed images of their favorite foods while performing a visuo-spatial task across six successive trials. Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each food image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing reduced the vividness of, and craving reactivity to, personally relevant food images. Forehead tracking, a novel self-administered task, proved to be as effective in reducing vividness and craving ratings as the established visuo-spatial working memory laboratory tasks of eye movements, dynamic visual noise, and spatial tapping, and thus presents a simple, accessible technique potentially applicable in the home environment. All four tasks maintained their reducing effect over multiple trials. Individual differences in imaging ability and habitual food craving did not impact upon their effectiveness, indicating that visuo-spatial tasks can be successfully used to reduce food cravings across a range of people.

The nature of imagery processes underlying food cravings.

OBJECTIVE: The study used a working memory approach to examine the nature of the imagery processes underlying food cravings. DESIGN AND METHOD: A sample of 60 dieters and 60 non-dieters were asked to imagine either a food induction or a holiday induction scenario. Participants then performed 18 trials of either a visual imagery task (loading the visuo-spatial sketch pad) or auditory imagery task (loading the phonological loop). Food craving was measured before and after the induction scenario, and then after every 6 trials of the imagery task. RESULTS: Craving intensity increased following instructions to imagine the food (but not holiday) induction scenario, especially for dieters. As predicted, the visual imagery task was superior to the auditory imagery task in reducing the level of food craving. DISCUSSION: The results confirmed the imaginal basis of food cravings. Specifically, they demonstrated that the imagery processes involved in food cravings are predominantly visual in nature. Hence concurrent tasks that load the visuospatial sketch pad of working memory can be used to reduce food cravings. The findings have potential application in the treatment of craving episodes in clinical populations.

Insensitivity of visual short-term memory to irrelevant visual information.

Several authors have hypothesized that visuo-spatial working memory is functionally analogous to verbal working memory. Irrelevant background speech impairs verbal short-term memory. We investigated whether irrelevant visual information has an analogous effect on visual short-term memory, using a dynamic visual noise (DVN) technique known to disrupt visual imagery (Quinn & McConnell, 1996b). Experiment I replicated the effect of DVN on pegword imagery. Experiments 2 and 3 showed no effect of DVN on recall of static matrix patterns, despite a significant effect of a concurrent spatial tapping task. Experiment 4 showed no effect of DVN on encoding or maintenance of arrays of matrix patterns, despite testing memory by a recognition procedure to encourage visual rather than spatial processing. Serial position curves showed a one-item recency effect typical of visual short-term memory. Experiment 5 showed no effect of DVN on short-term recognition of Chinese characters, despite effects of visual similarity and a concurrent colour memory task that confirmed visual processing of the characters. We conclude that irrelevant visual noise does not impair visual short-term memory. Visual working memory may not be functionally analogous to verbal working memory, and different cognitive processes may underlie visual short-term memory and visual imagery.