A Review on Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Medicinal as well as Poisonous Mushrooms.

Mushrooms have been used as traditional medicine from last few decades. Mushrooms as higher Basidiomycetes contain secondary metabolites in fruit bodies, cultured mycelium, and cultured broth. Medicinal mushrooms possess medicinal properties such as anti-tumor, immunomodulating, antioxidant, cardiovascular, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, antifungal, detoxification, hepatoprotective, and anti-diabetic effects. Phase-I, II, and III clinical trials were studied on various biologically active compounds isolated from medicinal mushrooms and are used adequately to treat various diseases including cancer. The present review focuses on various edible, medicinal and poisonous species of mushrooms belong to genera; Auricularia, Cantherallus, Ganoderma, Pleurotus, Lentinus, Trametes (Coriolus), Tremella and Amanita along with their chemical composition, biologically active compounds isolated and their pharmacological potential.

Designing and construction of simulated constructed wetland for treatment of sewage containing metals.

A simulated horizontal flow constructed wetland (CW) has been designed with gravel medium and aquatic plants Typha latifolia and Polygonum hydropiper to assess its performance efficiency for sewage treatment. Monitoring of fully developed CW revealed a high removal of nutrients and metals from sewage after treatment at varying retention times. The percent (%) removal of biological oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, PO4-P and total nitrogen in CW planted with T. latifolia were 88.20, 61.9, 72.12, 74.23 and 66.78%; however, with P. hydropiper, reductions were 79.47, 53.47, 55.46, 60.40 and 52.87%, respectively, at 8 d retention time. In addition, T. latifolia and P. hydropiper accumulated substantial amount of metals in their tissues particularly in roots. T. latifolia root accumulated maximum amount of Zn (40.44 µg/g dw) followed by Cu (39.24 µg/g dw), Pb (37.78 µg/g dw) and Cr (19.95 µg/g dw) as compared to P. hydropiper, which was 17.85, 33.43, 36.19 and 9.67 µg/g dw, respectively. Further, plant-specific high translocation factor (>1) of metals were observed at different retention times. Results suggest that simulated CW may be applied as an ecofriendly and low-cost tool to treat sewage before discharge into a fresh water body.

Arsenic and other heavy metal accumulation in plants and algae growing naturally in contaminated area of West Bengal, India.

The present study was conducted to quantify the arsenic (As) and other heavy metal concentrations in the plants and algae growing naturally in As contaminated blocks of North-24-Pargana and Nandia district, West Bengal, India to assess their bioaccumulation potential. The plant species included five macrophytes and five algae were collected from the nine selected sites for estimation of As and other heavy metals accumulated therein by using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrophotometer (ICP-MS). Results revealed that maximum As concentration (117mgkg(-1)) was recorded in the agricultural soil at the Barasat followed by Beliaghat (111mgkg(-1)) sites of North-24-Pargana. Similarly, concentration of selenium (Si, 249mgkg(-1)), lead (Pb, 79.4mgkg(-1)), chromium (Cr, 138mgkg(-1)) was also found maximum in the soil at Barasat and cadmium (Cd, 163mgkg(-1)) nickel (Ni, 36.5mgkg(-1)) at Vijaynagar site. Among the macrophytes, Eichhornia crassipes found more dominating species in As contaminated area and accumulate As (597mgkg(-1)) in the shoot at kanchrapara site. The Lemna minor found to accumulate maximum As (735mgkg(-1)) in the leaves at Sonadanga and Pistia stratiotes accumulated minimum As (24.5mgkg(-1)) in the fronds from Ranaghat site. In case of diatoms, maximum As (760mgkg(-1)) was accumulated at Kanchrapara site followed by Hydrodictiyon reticulatum (403mgkg(-1)) at the Ranaghat site. High concentration of As and other heavy metal in soil indicates long term effects of irrigation with contaminated ground water, however, high concentration of heavy metals in naturally growing plants and algae revealed their mobilization through leaching and possible food chain contamination. Therefore, efficient heavy metal accumulator macrophytes Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza may be exploited in removing metals from contaminated water by developing a plant based treatment system. However, As accumulator algal species may be used as a bioresource for understanding algae mediated As detoxification and bioindication studies.

Amelioration of arsenic toxicity in rice: Comparative effect of inoculation of Chlorella vulgaris and Nannochloropsis sp. on growth, biochemical changes and arsenic uptake.

The present study was conducted to assess the responses of rice (Oryza sativa L. var. Triguna) by inoculating alga; Chlorella vulgaris and Nannochlropsis sp. supplemented with As(III) (50µM) under hydroponics condition. Results showed that reduced growth variables and protein content in rice plant caused by As toxicity were restored in the algae inoculated plants after 7d of treatment. The rice plant inoculated with Nannochloropsis sp. exhibited a better response in terms of increased root, shoot length and biomass than C. vulgaris under As(III) treatment. A significant reduction in cellular toxicity (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) and antioxidant enzyme (SOD, APX and GR) activities were observed in algae inoculated rice plant under As(III) treatment in comparison to uninoculated rice. In addition, rice treated with As(III), accumulated 35.05mgkg(-1)dw arsenic in the root and 29.96mgkg(-1)dw in the shoot. However, lower accumulation was observed in As(III) treated rice inoculated with C. vulgaris (24.09mg kg(-1)dw) and Nannochloropsis sp. (20.66mgkg(-1)dw) in the roots, while in shoot, it was 20.10mgkg(-1)dw and 11.67mgkg(-1)dw, respectively. Results demonstrated that application of these algal inoculum ameliorates toxicity and improved tolerance in rice through reduced As uptake and modulating antioxidant enzymes. Thus, application of algae could provide a low-cost and eco-friendly mitigation approach to reduce accumulation of arsenic in edible part of rice as well as higher yield in the As contaminated agricultural field.

In vitro acaricidal activity of ethanolic and aqueous floral extracts of Calendula officinalis against synthetic pyrethroid resistant Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

Detection of resistance levels against deltamethrin and cypermethrin in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus collected from Jammu (India) was carried out using larval packet test (LPT). The results showed the presence of resistance level II and I against deltamethrin and cypermethrin, respectively. Adult immersion test (AIT) and LPT were used to evaluate the in vitro efficacy of ethanolic and aqueous floral extracts of Calendula officinalis against synthetic pyrethroid resistant adults and larvae of R. (B.) microplus. Four concentrations (1.25, 2.5, 5 and 10 %) of each extract with four replications for each concentration were used in both the bioassays. A concentration dependent mortality was observed and it was more marked with ethanolic extract. In AIT, the LC50 values for ethanolic and aqueous extracts were calculated as 9.9 and 12.9 %, respectively. The egg weight of the live ticks treated with different concentrations of the ethanolic and aqueous extracts was significantly lower than that of control ticks; consequently, the reproductive index and the percent inhibition of oviposition values of the treated ticks were reduced. The complete inhibition of hatching was recorded at 10 % of ethanolic extract. The 10 % extracts caused 100 % mortality of larvae after 24 h. In LPT, the LC50 values for ethanolic and aqueous extracts were determined to be 2.6 and 3.2 %, respectively. It can be concluded that the ethanolic extract of C. officinalis had better acaricidal properties against adults and larvae of R. (B.) microplus than the aqueous extract.

Acaricidal activity of ethanolic extract of Artemisia absinthium against Hyalomma anatolicum ticks.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the in vitro efficacy of different concentrations of ethanolic extract obtained from the aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium in comparison to amitraz on adults, eggs and larvae of Hyalomma anatolicum using the adult immersion test (AIT), egg hatchability test and larval packet test (LPT), respectively. Four concentrations of the extract (2.5, 5, 10 and 20%) with three replications for each concentration were used in all the bioassays. In AIT, the mortality rates at 2.5, 5 and 10% were significantly different (p < 0.05) in comparison to the control group; however, at 20%, it was similar to the positive control group. Maximum mortality of 86.7% was recorded at 20%. The LC50 and LC95 values were calculated as 6.51 and 55.43%, respectively. The oviposition was reduced significantly by 36.8 and 59.1% at concentrations of 10 and 20%, respectively. Egg hatchability was reduced significantly at all concentrations (2.5-20%) in comparison to the control. In LPT, the extract caused 100% mortality of larvae at all the concentrations after 24 h. The results show that ethanolic extract obtained from the aerial parts of A. absinthium has acaricidal properties and could be useful in controlling H. anatolicum.

In vitro evaluation of ethanolic extracts of Ageratum conyzoides and Artemisia absinthium against cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus.

In vitro efficacy of ethanolic extracts obtained from the aerial parts of Ageratum conyzoides and Artemisia absinthium was assessed on Rhipicephalus microplus using adult immersion test (AIT). Five concentrations of the extract (1.25%, 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and 20%) with three replications for each concentration were used in the bioassay. In AIT, the maximum mortality was recorded as 40% and 66.7% at 20% concentration for A. conyzoides and A. absinthium, respectively. Acaricidal activity was found to be higher in the extract of A. absinthium with LC50 and LC95 values of 11.2% and 61.7%, respectively. Egg mass weight of the live ticks treated with different concentrations of the extracts was significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of control ticks; consequently, the reproductive index and oviposition values of the treated ticks were reduced significantly (P<0.05). The A. conyzoides inhibited 90% hatching of eggs at the 20% concentration, whereas A. absinthium showed 100% inhibition at 5%, 10%, and 20% concentrations. The results show that A. absinthium has better acaricidal properties than A. conyzoides and could be useful in controlling R. microplus.

Acaricidal activity of extract of Artemisia absinthium against Rhipicephalus sanguineus of dogs.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the in vitro efficacy of different concentrations of chloroform extract obtained from the aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium in comparison to amitraz on adults, eggs and larvae of the dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus using the adult immersion test (AIT), egg hatchability test (EHT) and larval packet test (LPT), respectively. Five concentrations of the extract (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 %) with three replications for each concentration were used in all the bioassays. A control group was established (water + dimethylsulphoxide) together with a positive control group (amitraz), with three repetitions each. In AIT, the mortality rates were 0.0, 13.3, 16.7, 33.3 and 93.3 % in concentrations of 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 %, respectively, and the variation was significant (p=0.0151). The LC50 (CI) and LC95 (CI) values were calculated as 8.793 % (8.217-9.408) and 34.59 % (29.71-40.26), respectively. The egg production was reduced by 6.6, 6.6, 18.3, 42.5 and 85.1 % in the concentrations of 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 %, respectively, and it was statistically significant (p=0.0274). In EHT, hatching was completely inhibited at 5, 10 and 20 % displaying 100 % ovicidal action while at the concentrations of 1.25 and 2.5 %, the inhibition rates were 20 and 60 %, respectively. In LPT, the extract caused 100 % mortality of larvae in the concentrations of 5, 10 and 20 % after 24 h while at the concentrations of 1.25 and 2.5 %, the mortality rates were 54.3 and 96.7 %, respectively. The LC50 (CI) and LC95 (CI) values were determined to be 1.11 % (1.099-1.121) and 2.37 % (2.328-2.423), respectively. The results show that the extract of A. absinthium has acaricidal properties and could be useful in controlling R. sanguineus which is an efficient vector of pathogens both in dogs and humans.

Constructed wetland as an ecotechnological tool for pollution treatment for conservation of Ganga river.

With aim to develop an efficient and ecofriendly approach for on-site treatment of sewage, a sub-surface flow constructed wetland (CW) has been developed by raising potential aquatic macrophytes; Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Colocasia esculenta, Polygonum hydropiper, Alternanthera sessilis and Pistia stratoites in gravel as medium. Sewage treatment potential of CW was evaluated by varying retention time at three different stages of plant growth and stabilization. After 6 months, monitoring of fully established CW indicated reduction of 90%, 65%, 78%, 84%, 76% and 86% of BOD, TSS, TDS, NO3-N, PO4-P and NH4-N, respectively in comparison to inlet after 36 h of retention time. Sewage treatment through CW also resulted in reduction of heavy metal contents. Thus, CW proved an effective method for treatment of wastewater and may be developed along river Ganga stretch as an alternative technology. Treated water may be drained into river to check further deterioration of Ganga water quality.

Impact of rhizobacteria on growth and chromium accumulation in Scirpus lacustris L. grown under chromium supplementation.

Four chromate tolerant rhizobacterial strains viz., RZB-01, RZB-02, RZB-03 and RZB-04 were isolated from rhizosphere of Scirpus lacustris collected from Cr-contaminated area. These strains characterized at morphological and biochemical levels. The most efficient chromate tolerant strain RZB-03 was inoculated to fresh plant of S. lacustris and grown in 2 microg ml(-1) and 5 microg ml(-1) of Cr+6 supplemented nutrient solution under controlled laboratory condition. The effects of rhizobacterial inoculation on growth and chromium accumulation in S. lacustris were evaluated. The inoculation of rhizobacteria increased biomass by 59 and 104%, while total chlorophyll content by 1.76 and 15.3% and protein content increased by 23 and 138% under 2 microg ml(-1) and 5 microg ml(-1) concentrations of Cr+6, respectively after 14 d as compared to non-inoculated plant. Similarly, the Cr accumulation also increased by 97 and 75% in shoot and 114 and 68% in root of inoculated plants as compared to non inoculated plants at 2 microg ml(-1) and 5 microg ml(-1) Cr+6 concentrations, respectively after 14 d. The chromate tolerant rhizobacteria which play an important role in chromium uptake and growth promotion in plant may be useful in development of microbes assisted phytoremediation system for decontamination of chromium polluted sites.

A serine-to-threonine substitution in the triazine herbicide-binding protein in potato cells results in atrazine resistance without impairing productivity.

A mutation of the psbA gene was identified in photoautotrophic potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv Superior x U.S. Department of Agriculture line 66-142) cells selected for resistance to 6-chloro-N-ethyl-N'-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine (atrazine). Photoaffinity labeling with 6-azido-N-ethyl-N'-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine detected a thylakoid membrane protein with a M(r) of 32,000 in susceptible, but not in resistant, cells. This protein was identified as the secondary quinone acceptor of photosystem II (QB) protein. Atrazine resistance in selected cells was attributable to a mutation from AGT (serine) to ACT (threonine) in codon 264 of the psbA gene that encodes the QB protein. Although the mutant cells exhibited extreme levels of resistance to atrazine, no concomitant reductions in photosynthetic electron transport or cell growth rates compared to the unselected cells were detected. This is in contrast with the losses in productivity observed in atrazine-resistant mutants that contain a glycine-264 alteration.

Can guava fruit intake decrease blood pressure and blood lipids?

A randomized, single-blind, controlled trial was conducted to examine the effects of guava fruit intake on BPs and blood lipids in patients with essential hypertension. Of 145 hypertensives that entered the trial, 72 patients were assigned to take a soluble fibre and a potassium-rich diet containing 0.5-1.0 kg of guava daily (group A) and 73 patients to their usual diet (group B), while salt, fat, cholesterol, caffeine and alcohol intake were similar in both groups. Mean age, mean body weight and male sex, were similar, and so were risk factors, mean BPs, mean serum sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, triglycerides, cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol in both groups. Dietary adherence to guava intake was checked by a questionnaire. After four weeks of follow-up on an increased consumption of dietary potassium and low sodium/potassium ratio, group A patients were associated with 7.5/8.5 mmHg net decrease in mean systolic and diastolic pressures compared with group B. Increased intake of soluble dietary fibre (47.8 +/- 11.5 vs. 9.5 +/- 0.85 g/day) was associated with a significant decrease in serum total cholesterol (7.9%), triglycerides (7.0%) and an insignificant increase in HDL-cholesterol (4.6%) with a mild increase in the ratio of total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol in group A patients compared with group B. It is possible that an increased consumption of guava fruit can cause a substantial reduction in BPs and blood lipids with a lack of decrease in HDL-cholesterol due to its higher potassium and soluble fibre content, respectively.

Potassium metabolism and therapy in hypertension.

Several studies are available now to highlight the use of K salts in the management of hypertension. Potassium supplements correct diuretic-induced K loss and also lower the blood pressure. However, salt-sensitive hypertension might not respond to K therapy. It acts as a diuretic and reduces plasma volume by inhibiting sodium reabsorption in the renal tubules. It has a vasodilatory effect on the arterioles by directly acting on the smooth muscle cells. Potassium also suppresses plasma renin activity which is not a uniform observation, however; patients who do not respond to K can have a raised plasma renin activity. Potassium might also inhibit neurogenic mechanisms in reducing blood pressure by inhibiting catecholamines. The notion that a low sodium and high K diet can reduce blood pressure without antihypertensive drug therapy is quite interesting because a large number of subjects with subnormal and mild hypertension can benefit from this remedy. However, long term prospective studies would be necessary to generalize the use of K salts in the prevention and treatment of hypertension.