Modulating in vitro fecal fermentation behavior of sodium alginate by Ca2+ cross-linking.

Slow fermentable dietary fibers can be utilized by human gut microbiota in the distal region of the colon and thus exert a sufficient short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) supplement in the distal region of the human colon. Alginate (Alg) based microgels are widely fabricated and used to control their digestion by digestive enzymes releasing active substances site-specifically. Herein, sodium alginate microgels with gradient calcium-ion (Ca2+) cross-linking densities were developed, restricting their degradation by gut microbiota. Alg microgels were prepared using high-speed shearing after Alg was cross-linked with 10, 40, and 60 mmol/L Ca2+, respectively (named 10-Alg, 40-Alg, and 60-Alg). The fluorescence and atomic force microscopic results showed that the 40-Alg particle has the densest structure among the three cross-linked Alg. In vitro human fecal fermentation results revealed that the Ca2+ cross-linking exerted more restricting effects than delaying effects on the fermentation of Alg, and the 40-Alg exhibited the slowest fermentation rate and the least fermentation extent, by characterizing the residual total carbohydrate content, residual monosaccharide content, pH, and total short-chain fatty acids. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing results indicated that cross-linking structures shaped a high specifical Bacteroides-type microbial community and that OTU205 (Bacteroides_xylanisolvens) highly correlated to the cross-linking density (R = 0.65, p = 0.047). In sum, Ca2+ cross-linking generated a dense and compact structure of sodium alginate that facilitated a more restricted fermentation property and specificity-targeting microbial community structure in comparison to the original sodium alginate.

INDETERMINATE1 autonomously regulates phosphate homeostasis upstream of the miR399-ZmPHO2 signaling module in maize.

The macronutrient phosphorus is essential for plant growth and development. Plants have evolved multiple strategies to increase the efficiency of phosphate (Pi) acquisition to protect themselves from Pi starvation. However, the crosstalk between Pi homeostasis and plant development remains to be explored. Here, we report that overexpressing microRNA399 (miR399) in maize (Zea mays) is associated with premature senescence after pollination. Knockout of ZmPHO2 (Phosphate 2), a miR399 target, resulted in a similar premature senescence phenotype. Strikingly, we discovered that INDETERMINATE1 (ID1), a floral transition regulator, inhibits the transcription of ZmMIR399 genes by directly binding to their promoters, alleviating the repression of ZmPHO2 by miR399 and ultimately contributing to the maintenance of Pi homeostasis in maize. Unlike ZmMIR399 genes, whose expression is induced by Pi deficiency, ID1 expression was independent of the external inorganic orthophosphate status, indicating that ID1 is an autonomous regulator of Pi homeostasis. Furthermore, we show that ZmPHO2 was under selection during maize domestication and cultivation, resulting in a more sensitive response to Pi starvation in temperate maize than in tropical maize. Our study reveals a direct functional link between Pi-deprivation sensing by the miR399-ZmPHO2 regulatory module and plant developmental regulation by ID1.

Oriental traditional herbal Medicine--Puerariae Flos: A systematic review.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Pueraria Flos (PF), a traditional herbal medicine, is botanically from the dried flowers of Pueraria lobate (Willd.) Ohwi. (Chinese: ) or Pueraria thomsonii Benth. (Chinese: ). It has a long history of thousands of years in China for awakening the spleen, clearing the lungs, relieving alcohol. AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review aims to report the up-to-date research progress in ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology, metabolism and therapeutic application of PF, so as to provide a strong basis for future clinical treatment and scientific research. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Relevant information on PF was collected from scientific literature databases including PubMed, CNKI and other literature sources (Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations and Chinese herbal classic books) by using the keyword "Puerariae". RESULTS: Briefly, phytochemical research report has isolated 39 flavonoids, 19 saponins and 25 volatile oils from PF. Flavonoids and saponins are the most important bioactive compounds, and most of the quality control studies focus on these two types of compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have revealed their significant biological activities in relieving alcoholism, hepatoprotective, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidation, which provides theoretical support for the traditional use. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive analysis showed that pharmacological activity of most purified compounds from PF had not been reported. Kakkalide, tectoridin and their deglycosylated metabolites (irisolidone and tectorigenin) has been focused on excessively due to their higher content and better activities. This leads to low development and resources waste. Interestingly, PF made a breakthrough in the field of food. Many kinds of fat-lowering foods such as PILLBOX Onaka have been popular in Japan market, which received extensive attention. Therefore, we suggest that future research can be paid attention on the development of the plant's function in the field of food and medicine, as well as the transformation from experimental to clinical.

Systematic characterization of components of Makyo-kanseki-to granule and serum metabolomics for exploring its protective mechanism against acute lung injury in lipopolysaccharide-induced rats.

Makyo-kanseki-to has been used for the treatment of pneumonia, becoming a basic formula for coronavirus disease 2019. However, the chemical profile of Makyo-kanseki-to granule and its possible mechanism against acute lung injury from terminal metabolic regulation have been unclear. The aim of this study was to characterize the constituents in Makyo-kanseki-to granule and reveal the potential related mechanism of Makyo-kanseki-to granule treatment for acute lung injury using a rat model of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury. Totally, 78 constituents were characterized based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Makyo-kanseki-to granule could alleviate acute lung injury through modulating rectal temperature, pulmonary edema, histopathology, and processes of inflammatory and oxidative stress. Twenty-two potential biomarkers in acute lung injury rats were identified by metabolomics based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole exactive high-field mass spectrometry. They were mainly involved in amino acids and glycerophospholipid metabolism, which were regulated by Makyo-kanseki-to granule. The present results not only increase the understanding of the chemical profile and molecular mechanism of Makyo-kanseki-to granule mediated protection against acute lung injury but also provide an experimental basis and new ideas for further development and clinical application of Makyo-kanseki-to granule.

Formation of mucus-permeable nanoparticles from soy protein isolate by partial enzymatic hydrolysis coupled with thermal and pH-shifting treatment.

Modulating the size and surface charge of nanocarriers provides an efficacious strategy to enhance bioavailability of encapsulated cargos through increased mucus penetration. In this study, mucus-permHeable soy protein nanoparticles (SPNPs) were successfully fabricated via gastrointestinal proteolysis coupled with heating and pH-shifting treatment. Results showed that treatment at 65 °C and 75 °C after proteolysis induced the assembly of α, ά, and ß subunits, forming a relatively loose structure. This facilitated further assembly upon pH-shifting, forming smaller-sized and less electronegative nanoparticles, which showed enhanced mucus permeability. However, treatment at 85 °C and 95 °C promoted stronger hydrophobic interactions and induced disulfide bond cross-linking between B and ß subunits, forming compact macro-aggregates with high ß-sheet structure. These larger-sized aggregates were less influenced by pH-shifting treatment, demonstrating limited mucus diffusion. This study provides a potential alternative to fabricate mucus-permeable nanoparticles, and established a relationship between protein subunit assembly behavior and its mucus permeability.

Systematic characterization of Puerariae Flos metabolites in vivo and assessment of its protective mechanisms against alcoholic liver injury in a rat model.

Puerariae Flos, a representative homology plant of medicine and food for alcoholism, has a long history of clinical experience and remarkable curative effect in the treatment of alcoholic liver disease (ALD). However, its effective forms and hepatoprotective mechanisms remain unknown. In the present study, a strategy based on UPLC-QTOF MS combined with mass defect filtering technique was established for comprehensive mapping of the metabolic profile of PF in rat plasma, urine, bile, and feces after oral administration. Furthermore, the absorbed constituents into plasma and bile with a relatively high level were subjected to the network analysis, functional enrichment analysis, and molecular docking to clarify the potential mechanism. Finally, the therapeutic effect of PF on ALD and predicted mechanisms were further evaluated using a rat model of alcohol-induced liver injury and Western blot analysis. In total, 25 prototype components and 82 metabolites, including 93 flavonoids, 13 saponins, and one phenolic acid, were identified or tentatively characterized in vivo. In addition, glucuronidation, sulfation, methylation, hydroxylation, and reduction were observed as the major metabolic pathways of PF. The constructed compound-target-pathway network revealed that 11 absorbed constituents associated with the 16 relevant targets could be responsible for the protective activity of PF against ALD by regulating nine pathways attributable to glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, amino acid metabolism, and lipid regulation as well as inflammation and immune regulation. In addition, four active ingredients (6″-O-xylosyltectoridin, genistein-7-glucuronide-4'-sulfate, tectoridin-4'-sulfate, and 6″-O-xylosyltectoridin-4'-sulfate) as well as two target genes (MAO-A and PPAR-α) were screened and validated to play a crucial role with a good molecular docking score. The present results not only increase the understanding on the effective form and molecular mechanisms of PF-mediated protection against ALD but also promote better application of PF as a supplement food and herbal medicine for the treatment of ALD.

Acupuncture at ST36 Alleviates the Behavioral Disorder of Autistic Rats by Inhibiting TXNIP-Mediated Activation of NLRP3.

Autism is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that severely affects patients' quality of life. We aimed to investigate whether acupuncture at Zusanli (ST36) could alleviate the behavior disorder of autistic rats by inhibiting thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP)-mediated activation of NLRP3. An autism model was induced by intraperitoneal injection of pregnant rats with valproic acid (VPA). The pups' behaviors were analyzed using hot plate, open field, Morris water maze, and 3-chamber social interaction tests. Nissl staining was used to visualize neurons in prefrontal cortex. Levels of TXNIP, NLRP3, interleukin (IL)-1ß, and caspase were determined by Western blot or quantitative real-time PCR. After ST36 acupuncture, pain sensitivity, autonomous activity, sociability index, sociability preference index, and learning and memory were improved in the autism model rats. Levels of TXNIP, NLRP3, IL-1ß, and caspase 1 were decreased after acupuncture. Interference with TXNIP alleviated the behavior disorders and inhibited NLRP3, caspase 1, and IL-1ß levels. In summary, ST36 acupuncture reduced TXNIP expression, inhibited the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and alleviated the behavior disorder related to the prefrontal cortex of the autistic rats. These results point to a potential mechanism for acupuncture-induced improvement of autistic behavioral disorders.

Inertial Microfluidic Purification of Floating Cancer Cells for Drug Screening and Three-Dimensional Tumor Models.

Floating cancer cells can survive the programmed death anoikis process after detaching from the extracellular matrix for the anchorage-dependent cells. Purification of viable floating cancer cells is essential for many biomedical studies, such as drug screening and cancer model development. However, the floating cancer cells are mixed with dead cells and debris in the medium supernatant. In this paper, we developed an inertial microfluidic device with sinusoidal microchannels to continuously remove dead cells and debris from viable cells. First, we characterized the differential inertial focusing properties of polystyrene beads in the devices. Then, we investigated the effects of flow rate on inertial focusing of floating MDA-MB-231 cells. At an optimal flow condition, purification of viable cells was performed and the purity of live cells was increased significantly from 19.9% to 76.6%, with a recovery rate of 69.7%. After separation, we studied and compared the floating and adherent MDA-MB-231 cells in terms of cell proliferation, protrusive cellular structure, and the expression of cyclooxygenase (Cox-2) which is related to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) changes. Meanwhile, drug screening of both floating and adherent cancer cells was conducted using a chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin (Dox). The results revealed that the floating cancer cells possess 30-fold acquired chemoresistance as compared to the adherent cancer cells. Furthermore, a three-dimensional (3D) double-cellular coculture model of human mammary fibroblasts (HMF) spheroid and cancer cells using the floating liquid marble technique was developed.

A novel strategy for screening bioavailable quality markers of traditional Chinese medicine by integrating intestinal absorption and network pharmacology: Application to Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill.

BACKGROUND: Major components are often used as marker compounds for quality control of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). However, these compounds may not necessarily bioavailable and active in vivo, thereby, failing to control the "quality". PURPOSE: The purpose of this paper is to develop a novel strategy integrating absorption and activity deduced from network pharmacology to identify more reasonable markers for quality control of TCM formulas using Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill (WJBFP) as an example. STUDY DESIGN: Human Caucasian colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cell transport studies and a bioavailability-enhanced network pharmacological approach were integrated to identify better phytochemical markers for quality control. METHODS: The absorption of multiple components in WJBFP was evaluated by a Caco-2 cell culture model. Nine databases were used to identify potential targets in the network pharmacology analysis. Cytoscape 3.7.2 was employed for the network data integration, visualization, and centrality analysis. Molecular docking was carried out to investigate the binding affinity of the identified markers to their candidate targets. RESULTS: The apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) and efflux ratio (ER) of 66 compounds were determined. Five hundred and two putative targets and 187 primary dysmenorrhea (PD) related targets were identified. Twenty-two candidate targets interacting with 20 potential active compounds were screened with the putative PD related targets intersection network using Degree Centrality (DC) ranking. By integrating absorption, 16 candidate targets interacting with 8 potential active compounds were identified. Besides, 53 compounds hitting candidate targets were divided into two classes according to their DC values. Then each of the two classes of DC was stratified into two groups based on the Papp for a total of four classes. Finally, five compounds belonging to Class 1 with higher DC and higher Papp, formononetin, ferulic acid, isoliquiritigenin, neocryptotanshinone and senkyunolide A, were identified as potential bioavailable phytochemical markers for the quality control of WJBFP against PD. Furthermore, molecular docking analysis validated the interplay between candidate targets and marker ingredients. CONCLUSION: A novel strategy combining intestinal absorption with network pharmacology analysis was successfully established to identify bioavailable and bioactive markers for quality control of WJBFP against PD.

Self-organized thermo-responsive poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)-graft-pullulan nanoparticles for synergistic thermo-chemotherapy of tumor.

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)-graft-pullulan (PPLGA) based self-organized nanoparticles hold immense potential for synergistic thermo-chemotherapy of tumor. Herein, the biocompatible and biodegradable PPLGA were synthesized by a novel microwave-assisted solution polymerization. The polymers showed thermo-responsive properties, which was attributed to the change of polymer-water hydrogen bonding in controlling the macromolecular contraction, chain collapse as a result of changes in micro-rigidity of core. The curcumin loaded PPLGA nanoparticles (CUR-PPLGA-N), with impressively high drug loading (10.85 ± 0.27 %), exhibited temperature dependence in drug release kinetics. The results of both MTT and antitumor efficiency elucidated that the CUR-PPLGA-N under high temperature facilitated on-demand drug release from the nano-assembly and had a synergistic therapeutic effect for cancer. Thus the developed thermo-responsive PPLGA addressed concerns related to the low drug loading and inefficient drug release at target sites, and might be considered as a powerful nanoplatform for synergistic thermo-chemotherapy of tumor.

Head-out immersion in natural thermal mineral water for the management of hypertension: a review of randomized controlled trials.

Hypertension is a major public health problem in the world, and the management of hypertension has always been a research of interest. Balneotherapy, with its recreational aspect, is more acceptable than medication intake and lifestyle change for the management of hypertension. The aim of this review was to summarize the current available data on the clinical effects of head-out immersion in natural thermal mineral water (HINTMW) as the most common method of balneotherapy used in the management of hypertension. We screened the PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, China Science and Technology Journal, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, WANFANG, and China Biology Medicine disc databases and selected 12 randomized controlled trials involving a total of 1122 participants. Among 12 trials, HINTMW was taken as the only intervention in only one study, HINTMW was taken in addition to basic antihypertensive drugs in three studies, and HINTMW was taken in combination with advice to follow nonpharmacological methods in one study involving participants who partly used antihypertensive drugs, while HINTMW combined with other interventions, such as natural convalescent factor therapy, psychotherapy, exercises, nutrition therapy, and integrated care, was taken in addition to basic antihypertensive drugs in the other 7 studies. Our results showed that natural thermal mineral water immersion alone or natural thermal mineral water immersion as an adjuvant therapy to medication or natural thermal mineral water immersion combined with other interventions had no adverse effects on hypertensive patients, and most even had positive effects. However, more high-quality evidences on therapeutic effectiveness of natural thermal mineral water immersion on hypertension are needed from additional randomized controlled trials with high methodological quality.

Metabolite profiling and quantification of phytochemicals of Tianma-Gouteng granule in human and rat urine using ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.

Tianma-Gouteng granule has been used for the treatment of hypertension, headache, and stroke in China. However, the metabolism of Tianma-Gouteng granule has not been clear. In the present study, an ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method has been developed for rapid identification of 35 prototypes and 43 metabolites in human and rat urine after single oral administration of Tianma-Gouteng granule. The results showed that glucuronidation and sulfation were the main metabolic pathways for flavonoids, alkaloids, iridoidic glycosides, anthraquinones, phenols, and stilbenes that were found in Tianma-Gouteng granule. Moreover, a validated ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method was applied for the quantification of 14 compounds in rat urine after an oral administration of Tianma-Gouteng granule (2.5 g/kg). During 0-48 h after dosing, the cumulative excretion rates of nine prototype components were 53% for gastrodin, 0.07∼1.6% for geniposide, baicalin and baicalein, wogonoside, rhynchophylline and isorhynchophylline, leonurine, and emodin, indicating that urinary excretion is the major way for gastrodin to eliminate from the body. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of metabolism and excretive kinetics of Tianma-Gouteng granule in human and/or rat, and helpful information for screening of its active components in vivo and clinical application.

Identification of the absorbed components and their metabolites of Tianma-Gouteng granule in rat plasma and bile using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

Tianma-Gouteng granule (TGG), a Chinese herbal formula preparation, is clinically used for the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases such as hypertension, cerebral ischaemia, acute ischaemic stroke and Parkinson's disease. Although few reports have been published concerning the absorbed prototype components of TGG, the possible metabolic pathways of TGG in vivo remain largely unclear. In this study, a method using UPLC-Q/TOF MS was established for the detection and identification of the absorbed prototype components and related metabolites in rat plasma and bile after oral administration of TGG at high and normal clinical dosages. A total of 68 components were identified or tentatively identified in plasma and bile samples, including absorbed prototypes and their metabolites. The major absorbed components were gastrodin, isorhynchophylline, rhynchophylline, isocorynoxeine, corynoxeine, geissoschizine methyl ether baicalin, baicalein, wogonoside, wogonin, geniposidic acid, leonurine, 2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-ß-d-glucoside and emodin. The main metabolic pathways of these components involved phase I (isomerization, hydrolysis and reduction) and phase II (glucuronidation and sulfation) reaction, and the phase II biotransformation pathway was predominant. The present study provides rich information on the in vivo absorption and metabolism of TGG, and the results will be helpful for further studies on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of TGG.

Simultaneous quantification combined with multivariate statistical analysis of multiple chemical markers of Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill by UHPLC-MS/MS.

Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill (WJBFP) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) complex formula, which has been widely used in the treatment of various gynecological disorders. However, the quality control of multiple components in WJBFP is challengeable by using the methods applicable to analysis of several phytochemicals in single herbs or simple herbal preparations. The purpose of this study is to establish an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method for the quantitative determination of 20 bioactive compounds in WJBFP. The modified chromatographic conditions were achieved on an Agilent Poroshell 120 EC-C18 column with a gradient elution consisted of 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile and 0.1% aqueous formic acid (v/v). All analytes were determined using a triple quadrupole mass spectrometry in positive or negative ionization modes with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. An UHPLC-MS/MS method was optimized and validated for linearity, limits of detection and quantification, precision, repeatability, stability and recovery. The proposed method was applied for the analysis of 20 compounds in 19 batches of commercial WJBFP products. principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis were applied to evaluate intrinsic quality and to identify chemical markers most responsible for quality evaluation. In conclusion, the established method offered speedy and sensitive determination for 20 compounds and is helpful for chemical standardization of commercial WJBFP products.

Maillard-Reaction-Functionalized Egg Ovalbumin Stabilizes Oil Nanoemulsions.

Egg white proteins are an excellent source of nutrition, with high biological and technological values. However, their limited functional properties prevent their widespread industrial applications. In this study, the ovalbumin functionality was improved via glycation by Maillard reaction with d-lactose. The free amino groups and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis profile were determined, confirming that glycation occurred between ovalbumin and lactose. The emulsification of the conjugate was 2.69-fold higher than that of ovalbumin at pH 7.0 after glycation. The thermal stability also improved remarkably. The glycated protein products were used to form an oil-water nanoemulsion for polymethoxyflavone-rich aged orange peel oil. The resulting nanoemulsion showed good pH, thermal, and storage stabilities.

[Summary and prospect of medicinal plant active substances in regulation of p65 nuclear translocation].

As the most important nuclear transcription factors in the cells, NF-κB is involved in many intracellular signaling pathways and transcription and regulation of genetic information. The signal transduction pathways mainly include the activation of IκB kinase, degradation of IκB protein and the nuclear translocation of p65. p65 trans-nuclear binding with DNA is the key for NF-κB to play a role. Abnormal activation of NF-κB is a major factor in the induction of oxidative stress, inflammation, cancer and so on. Therefore, maintaining the balance of NF-κB activity and regulating the nuclear translocation of p65 have great significance for further research on related subjects. In this paper, the regulation effects of the main active substances of medicinal plants (such as polyphenols, saponins, and alkaloids) on p65 nuclear translocation and the upstream pathway of NF-κB were discussed, expecting to provide reference for the development of natural active substances for functional food.

Ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the rapid analysis of constituents in the traditional Chinese medicine formula Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill.

An ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method in both positive and negative ion modes was established in order to comprehensively investigate the major constituents in Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill. Briefly, a Waters ACQUITY UPLC HSS C18 column was used to separate the aqueous extract of Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill. A total of 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile and 0.1% aqueous formic acid v/v were used as the mobile phase. All analytes were determined using quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization source in positive and negative ion modes. At length, a total of 173 components including flavones and their glycosides, monoterpene glycosides, triterpene saponins, phenethylalchohol glycosides, iridoid glycosides, phthalides, tanshinones, phenolic acids, sesquiterpenoids and cyclopeptides were identified or tentatively characterized in Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill in an analysis of 16.0 min based on the accurate mass and tandem mass spectrometry behaviors. The developed method is rapid and highly sensitive to characterize the chemical constituents of Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill, which could not only be used for chemical standardization and quality control of Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill, but also be helpful for further study in vivo metabolism of Wu Ji Bai Feng Pill.

Identification of metabolites in human and rat urine after oral administration of Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang granule using ultra high performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang is a traditional Chinese formula used for the treatment of cold syndrome, bronchitis, and nasal allergies for thousands of years. However, the in vivo integrated metabolism of its multiple components and the active chemical constituents of Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang remain unknown. In this study, a method using ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry was established for the detection and identification of the metabolites in human and rat urine after oral administration of Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang. A total of 19 compounds were detected or tentatively identified in human urine samples, including eight prototypes and 11 metabolites. Also, a total of 50 compounds were detected or tentatively identified in rat urine samples, including 15 prototypes and 35 metabolites detected with either a highly sensitive extracted ion chromatogram method or the MSE determination using Mass Fragment software. Our results indicated that phase Ⅱ reactions (e.g. glucuronidation and sulfation) were the main metabolic pathways of flavones, while phase I reactions (e.g. demethylation and hydroxylation) were the major metabolic reaction for alkaloids, lignans, and ginger essential oil. This investigation provided important structural information on the metabolism of Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang and provided evidence to obtain a more comprehensive metabolic profile.

Geissoschizine methyl ether protects oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity in neurons through the 'Neuronal Warburg Effect'.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The rate of production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is determined by mitochondrial metabolic rate. In turn, excessive ROS damage mitochondrial function, which is linked to aging and neurodegenerative conditions. One possible path to prevent oxidative stress could be achieved by reducing mitochondrial respiration in favor of less efficient ATP production via glycolysis. Such a shift in energy metabolism is known as the 'Warburg effect'. Geissoschizine methyl ether (GM) is one of the active components responsible for the psychotropic effects of Yokukansan, an herbal preparation widely used in China and Japan. AIM OF THE STUDY: GM protects neurons from glutamate-induced oxidative cytotoxicity through regulating mitochondrial function and suppressing ROS generation. We investigated the protective mechanism of GM against glutamate-induced oxidative stress in neuronal cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The current study was performed on primary neurons and HT22 cells, a hippocampus neuronal cell line. Cell viability was measured by Calcein AM assay. H2DCFDA staining was used for intracellular ROS measurement. GSH level was measured using the GSH-Glo™ luminescence-based assay. Mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis were measured by the Seahorse Bioscience XFe 96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer. Protein levels were analyzed by western blot analysis. RESULTS: GM prevented glutamate-induced cytotoxicity in an HT-22 neuronal cell line even with a 9-hour exposure delay. GM blocked glutamate-induced intracellular ROS accumulation through suppressing mitochondrial respiration. Further, we found that GM up-regulated glycolysis and the pentose-phosphate pathway, which is involved in the production of intracellular reducing agent, NADPH. In addition, GM protected primary cortical neurons from both glutamate and buthioninesulfoximine toxicity. CONCLUSION: GM prevents glutamate-induced oxidative damage through reducing mitochondrial respiration, which further suppresses ROS generation. In addition, GM up-regulates glycolysis which compensate for the energy depletion induced by mitochondrial respiration inhibition. Overall, our study is the first to report that GM protects neurons from oxidative toxicity by shifting energy metabolism from mitochondrial respiration to glycolysis.